conspiracy 🅿🅻🆉 🆂🅷🅰🆁🅴❗know the truth🤫

- Diversify & Protect Your Retirement With Gold & Silver: https://go.noblegoldinvestments.com/the-peoples-voice-gold/ Bill Gates’ plans to poison our food supply have gone into overdrive. The People’s Voice has already exposed Gates’ plan to force humanity to stop eating meat and start eating his synthetic beef – which just so happens to cause turbo cancers in humans. Not content with attempting to ban meat and replace it with carcinogenic synthetic gloop, Gates is also making moves to poison the fruit and vegetable supply. Gates has been exposed pumping millions of dollars into a plan to coat all fruit and vegetables with an invisible product that can’t be removed no matter how hard you scrub it.

Flat Earth Archive: Justin Peters DEBUNKED! ... with Yer Old Pal Mike Original Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRl0QQLgV9U LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS: #1 21 Mile Laser Experiment: https://fb.watch/aBtS052EyV/ #2 Long Distance Infrared Footage: https://fb.watch/aBtYtO762j/ #3 High Altitude Footage: https://fb.watch/aBu0f1qV-f/ #4 GPS Guided Laser Experiment: https://fb.watch/aBu4YC5f_C/ #5 200 Mile Digital Gyroscope Experiment: https://fb.watch/aBu6H5kUJf/ #6 High Altitude Infrared Footage: https://fb.watch/aBudfKSdWN/ #7 High Powered Light Over Frozen Lake Experiment: https://fb.watch/aBueYeKEW0/ #8 326 Mile Photographic Evidence: https://fb.watch/aBuieWbDxy/ #9 Light House Example: https://fb.watch/aBulsxjG_r/ #10 Laser Experiment On Frozen Lake: https://fb.watch/aBunREl9a8/ #11 Husband And Wife Experiment: https://fb.watch/aButXGKrmR/ #12 Telescopic Zoom Lens Experiment: https://fb.watch/aBuy0BC50T/ #13 Laser Experiment That Debunks Discovery Channel: https://fb.watch/aBuDRzVF_m/ #14 895 Feet Of Missing Curvature Experiment: https://fb.watch/aBuFT_KHnV/ #15 Chicago Skyline Experiment: https://fb.watch/a-df0L4zUW/ #16 Wales To North Ireland: https://fb.watch/crgIJhhkL3/ #17 Sea Of Galilee Experiment: https://fb.watch/crgLIpqndt/ #18 Timelapse Boat Footage: https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=2526752290798232 #19 Three Islands In California: https://fb.watch/k8HAcy4gkH/ #20 Santa Barbara, California Observation https://rumble.com/v4573s6-santa-barbara-california-observation-debunks-the-globe.html #21 San Clemente Island 76 Miles Away https://fb.watch/pvhHM_xM21/ #FlatEarth #BiblicalCosmology Keywords: Faith, science, truth, heliocentrism, geocentrism, biblical cosmology, bible, god, yah, yeshua, jesus, scripture, debunked, documentary

To become a Patron and get early, uncensored, full access to original and exclusive content, be a part of an incredible online social community of like minded individuals and speak to me one on one, support my Patreon now for only $5/month: Patreon.com/truthwillsetyoufree777 To help support my channel, so I can keep producing great content for all you guys, you can donate to my PayPal account (copy and paste link): PayPal.Me/truthwillsetyoufree7 OR PayPal email to send funds to: [email protected] OR, if you’re Canadian, send to: Interac E-transfer: [email protected] Here is a link to my Ebook for only $1.99 called “Truth of the Times: The Bible, Transhumanism and COVID-19: https://www.writersrepublic.com/bookshop/truth-times-bible-transhumanism-and-covid-19 Co/vi/d-1/9 - The Sc/ien/ce of Sa/rs-C/OV-2 and Oper/ation Gr/eat Re/set - Ultimate info Package: the most comprehensive and complete scie/nt/ific doc/uments on m/R/N/A “vac/ci/nes,” the sc/ience of loc/kdo/wns, m/ask/s, P/C/R tes/ting and incredible information on the Gr/eat R/es/et designed to be presented to Po/liticians and L/aw Enf/orcement to push back against this tyr/an/ny. Download google drive to your phone if you have any issues downloading the files. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1-0ME-73Dkc5lD4aEWOs6z0N53RJKMX2h Here is my YouTube channel under the same name Truthwillsetyoufree777: https://youtube.com/channel/UC6MA0Wdl0uqP2dx_DeZfhwg For UNCENSORED and FULL content please subscribe to another one of my channels as well: Here is a link to my Bitchute channel and all of my documentaries and playlists: https://www.bitchute.com/profile/BSZOEEQbtfWm/ I’m under the name Truthwillsetyoufree7777 with FOUR 7’s on Rumble! Here is a link to my channel there: https://rumble.com/c/c-1450463 Here is a link to my Odysee channel: https://odysee.com/@Truthwillsetyoufree777:8 Follow me on Tik tok: https://vm.tiktok.com/ZMemQbWAf/ Follow me on Inst/agram @truthwillsetyoufree777 https://www.instagram.com/truthwillsetyoufree777/ My backup Instagram http://www.instagram.com/truthwillsetyoufree777backup/ Follow me on Fa/cebook: https://www.facebook.com/jon.rossiter.9 Follow me on Tele/gram: https://t.me/truthwillsetyoufree777 Here is my Go F/und Me page to fi/ght ag/ainst unl/awful ch/arges and multiple as/saults from po/lic/e of/fic/ers on my person for not wearing a fa/ce ma/sk, despite showing my me/dic/al ex/em/ption!! This is for a la/wsuit against them and for their due ju/stice. All the videos of the events, interviews, photos and other details are all here: https://www.gofundme.com/f/help-jonathan-rossiter-pay-for-lawyer-m?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=p_cf+share-flow-1&fbclid=IwAR20ItraU5o_e2ooTJlbvhwnaaOQHjjPElmrlWvA5cFAieHKnAs-DT9X_G0 You can follow me on LBRY: https://lbry.tv/@Truthwillsetyoufree777:8 “Research Event 201” shirt with QR code that brings you to the original event 201 page done by John Hopkins University, order here: https://www.redbubble.com/i/tank-top/Research-Event-201-QR-Code-by-AYKDesigns/53928163.B4HC7?ref=product-title&utm_campaign=2019_orderdelivered_transactional_en&utm_medium=email&utm_source=RB&utm_term=45869875 Silver grey hat with the word “tinfoil” on it to hit home with the normies. Order here: https://thetinfoilhatfactory.com

🙏Today, January 17, 2023, our Flat Earth group has 4,492 members🙏 🎙️ We were the first Flat Earth group on Gab, and always most active 🎙️ Members include Eric Dubay, Vibes of Cosmos, Truth Center and more https://gab.com/groups/168 (we NEVER ask for a single dime) 🕵️ Truth never fears investigation . . only Deceptions fear investigation 🤔 🔎 Robin Hood's $5,000 'Silver Coin Challenge' . . our Earth is LEVEL 🔍 👉 Prove that Earth is Curved, or that it Spins, or that it Orbits the Sun 👈 https://gab.com/RobinsHood/posts/107401820636853853 Earth is indeed Stationary and Level . . Research proves this obvious Truth Every ocean/lake surveys/measures perfectly LEVEL . . ZERO Curvature ! Ask yourself how a Round Spherical Earth has measurably FLAT oceans ? 👁️ Over 50 MILLION Americans now question Spinning Globe Delusion 👁️ Earth Curvature Calculators: https://dizzib.github.io/earth/curve-calc/ https://metabunk.org/curve/ Your simple solution to get the unCensored Truth . . by Blue Water Bay Flat Earth Sun, Moon & Zodiac Clock app . . https://qrco.de/bbizVA ❤️ Source for this Video below . . click 👉 Like 👍 and Share ❤️ 📌 Like this video❓. . Thank the Creator 👉 Flat Earth Keys🗝️🧩 https://youtu.be/fySpzFfHaIY ❌ If you can't find your comment below, then I've removed it ❌ . . 🖕because it fell into one of the following categories listed🖕 👉 It was an appeal to authority or a straw man argument 👉 It was useless or off-topic and distracting from the Topic 👉 It was a personal attack, name calling or childish insults 👉 It contained excessive profanity or unrelated nonsense 👉 You are spamming unrelated bullshit in the comments 👉 You are spamming the same comment on other videos 👉 You dropped a link with no explanation of what it links to 👉 No avatar or channel history and most likely fake account ⚠️⚠️ NOTICE . . PAID SHILLS ⚠️⚠️ LibertyResearch, Johnsandlynge, barbbruce, jsmunroe59, ChrisLaw1, AscendingProof, lib3rty0rd3ath, gravelgrinder1, Skywatcher17, Trump45aussie, kevinsmithjr, BobTouchette, Theratfink, Plaster, levistrasser, ager78, 1969pontiaclemansman 🚧🚧Copyright Disclaimer🔎Copyright Act Section 107🔍🚧🚧 🔬 Use of this Video "allowed" by law for Educational Purposes 🔭 Fair Use 👉Research 👉Teaching 👉Criticism 👉News Reporting "Fair Use" guidelines: www.copyright.gov/fls/fl102.html

Brain Jabbed PART 1 OF 3 Richard D Hall https://rumble.com/v24m5xs-brain-jabbed-part-1-of-3.html Brain Jabbed PART 2 OF 3 Richard D Hall https://rumble.com/account/content?type=all&q=brain#:~:text=Brain%20Jabbed%20PART%202%20OF%203%20Richard%20D%20Hall Brain Jabbed PART 3 OF 3 Richard D Hall https://rumble.com/v24mci6-brain-jabbed-part-3-of-3-richard-d-hall.html NATO's Cognitive Warfare To Control Your Brain, Thoughts, & Behavior - Operational https://rumble.com/vnsztv-natos-cognitive-warfare-to-control-your-brain-thoughts-and-behavior-operati.html Dr. James Giordano The Brain is the New Battlefield https://rumble.com/vm6178-dr.-james-giordano-the-brain-is-the-new-battlefield.html The Global Brain Hive Mind Artificial Intelligence Control Grid https://rumble.com/vp694h-the-global-brain-hive-mind-artificial-intelligence-control-grid.html Last Dr Group Interview Discussing 5G and Use For Bioweapons Before Disappearance https://rumble.com/vorcnp-last-dr-group-interview-discussing-5g-and-use-for-bioweapons-before-disappe.html FORMER VODAFONE BOSS BLOWS WHISTLE ON 5G CORONAVxRUS CONNECTION https://rumble.com/vtr6db-former-vodafone-boss-blows-whistle-on-5g-coronavxrus-connection.html CNN REPORT in 1985 Admitting EMF's + 60ghz 5G IS A WEAPON! https://rumble.com/vtkcu5-cnn-report-in-1985-admitting-emfs-60ghz-5g-is-a-weapon.html 5g and Vaxxines Being Used For Mass Murder - Dr. Ricardo Delgado https://rumble.com/vubf4l-5g-and-vaxxines-being-used-for-mass-murder-dr.-ricardo-delgado.html 5G Vaxxine Wuhan 5G and the Cor-ona Vxrus https://rumble.com/vorhz5-5g-vaxxine-wuhan-5g-and-the-cor-ona-vxrus.html MASS GENOCIDE, 5G, VAxxINE PASSPORTS https://rumble.com/vnt0k1-mass-genocide-5g-vaxxine-passports.html IN WUHAN THEY ROLLED OUT 5G AND SAID PEOPLE WERE DYING OF A VxRUS https://rumble.com/vt6ww9-in-wuhan-they-rolled-out-5g-and-said-people-were-dying-of-a-vxrus.html STARLINK = SKYNET satellite constellation will operate in the high-frequency 5G bands above 24 GHz https://rumble.com/vt805t-starlink-skynet-satellite-constellation-will-operate-in-the-high-frequency-.html Biological Effects of Radar's Millimeter 5G Waves https://rumble.com/vo6d2n-october-24-2021.html Worried about 5G Fret Not for Something Far More Sinister is at Hand https://rumble.com/vfghjp-worried-about-5g-fret-not-for-something-far-ore-sinister-is-at-hand.html Elana Freeland: HAARP, Energy Weapons, NanoTech, A.I., Transhumanism, 5G, TI-Organized Stalking https://rumble.com/vrtptw-elana-freeland-haarp-energy-weapons-nanotech-a.i.-transhumanism-5g-ti-organ.html WEAPONS EXPERT OPENS 5G LED TRANSMITTER https://rumble.com/vrjp5h-weapons-expert-opens-5g-led-transmitter.html 5G ANTENNA DEPLOYED, URBAN RADAR WEAPON https://rumble.com/vrjp07-5g-antenna-deployed-urban-radar-weapon.html Cern/Russia/Crisper Cast 9/5G https://rumble.com/vsdb7t-cernrussiacrisper-cast-95g.html 5G Crisis - What's Working https://rumble.com/vml7k1-5g-crisis-whats-working.html Optogenetics: Using Light to Control Your Brain https://rumble.com/v252y6n-optogenetics-using-light-to-control-your-brain.html Optogenetics and Enhancing Brain Functions World Economic Forum https://rumble.com/v252ndh-optogenetics-and-enhancing-brain-functions-world-economic-forum.html Targeted Individuals https://rumble.com/vn0459-targeted-individuals.html On The Clock: The BRAIN Initiative https://rumble.com/account/content?type=all&q=brain#:~:text=Monetized-,On%20The%20Clock%3A%20The%20BRAIN%20Initiative,-On%20The%20Clock Elon Musk's NEURALINK brain chip demo explained https://rumble.com/vns6sd-elon-musks-neuralink-brain-chip-demo-explained.html How to control someone else's arm with your brain https://rumble.com/vt1axy-how-to-control-someone-elses-arm-with-your-brain.html Monkey uses brain to control prosthetic arm https://rumble.com/vt1ba5-monkey-uses-brain-to-control-prothetic-arm.html Nuerolife Brain Implant Could Change Lives https://rumble.com/vnslfj-this-brain-implant-could-change-lives.html This is HOW the VAxxINE MICRO / NANO TECH SELF-ASSEMBLES inside INOCULATED BODIES https://www.nutritruth.org/single-post/this-is-how-the-vaccine-micro---nano-tech-self-assembles-inside-inoculated-bodies La Quinta Columna prepares a report on microtechnology in Pfizer's vaxxine https://article.wn.com/view/2022/01/12/La_Quinta_Columna_prepares_a_report_on_microtechnology_in_Pf_4/ https://www.orwell.city/2022/01/report.html Graphene Hydroxide found in the COV vaxxines Dr. Andreas Noack https://rumble.com/vswlwn-graphene-razor-blades-found-in-the-cov-vaxxines-dr.-andreas-noack.html Graphene Hydroxide found in the COV vaxxines Dr. Andreas Noack https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355979001_DETECTION_OF_GRAPHENE_IN_COVID19_VACCINES https://chemicalviolence.com/2021-07-14-spanish-study-pfizer-vaccine-toxic-graphene-oxide.html Graphene Hydroxide: Like “Razor Blades” in the blood. https://roguemale.org/2021/11/30/graphene-oxide-like-razor-blades-in-the-blood/ https://tapnewswire.com/2021/12/graphene-hydroxide-like-razor-blades-in-the-blood/ Graphene Hydroxide, The Vaxx and EMF's https://www.lebeauhealth.com/post/graphene-hydroxide-the-vaxx-and-emf-s Graphene Hydroxide https://jayeb.substack.com/p/graphene-hydroxide Three-dimensionally networked graphene hydroxide with giant pores and its application in supercapacitors https://www.nature.com/articles/srep07419.pdf Apparatus For The Treatment Of Neuropsychic And Somatic Diseases With Heat, Light, Sound And Vhf Electromagnetic Radiation https://www.transformation.dk/www.raven1.net/mcf/lidamachine-nessie.htm MILITARY USE OF MIND CONTROL WEAPONS https://www.transformation.dk/www.raven1.net/mcf/ssss.htm US government accidentally sends a strange conspiracy theory file describing 'remote mind control' and 'forced memory blanking' https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5638069/Government-accidentally-sends-strange-conspiracy-theory-file-describing-remote-mind-control.html William Ross Adey, M.D. will be our 1999 Hans Selye Award Recipient. He is being honored for his seminal contributions to our understanding of the biologic effects of feeble electromagnetic forces, and for defining the parameters of the "Adey window" of activity. https://www.transformation.dk/www.raven1.net/mcf/adeycv.htm Wonder Weapons https://www.transformation.dk/www.raven1.net/mcf/us-news07-07-97.htm MILITARY USE OF MIND CONTROL WEAPONS https://www.transformation.dk/www.raven1.net/mcf/ssss.htm Aerial Mind-Control The Threat to Civil Liberties https://educate-yourself.org/cn/aerialmindcontrolNexusmagoct99.shtml Mind Control With Silent Sounds And Super Computers https://rense.com/politics5/mindcontrols.htm The State of Unclassified and Commercial Technology Capable of Some Electronic Mind Control Effects https://constitution.org/1-Corruption/abus/mkt/uncom.htm WHAT ARE PSYCHO-ELECTRONIC WEAPONS AND HOW MIGHT THEY WORK? https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/fb-5638359/WHAT-PSYCHO-ELECTRONIC-WEAPONS-WORK.html Transhumanism - We Will Become gods - You Don't Have to Participate https://rumble.com/vrzriv-transhumanism-we-will-become-gods-you-dont-have-to-participate.html Government To BAN Elon Musk's Neuralink https://rumble.com/vns74l-government-to-ban-elon-musks-neuralink.html Elon Musk's Neuralink chip tested live in pig brains https://rumble.com/vns6yp-elon-musks-neuralink-chip-tested-live-in-pig-brains.html Humans are HACKABLE! https://rumble.com/vt0gam-humans-are-hackable.html DARPA Developed Nonsurgical Brain Interfaces to Control https://www.killerrobots.org/2021/09/03/darpa-developed-nonsurgical-brain-interfaces-to-control-drones-using-thoughts/ DARPA Developed Nonsurgical Brain Interfaces to Control Drones Using Thoughts https://www.killerrobots.org/2021/09/03/darpa-developed-nonsurgical-brain-interfaces-to-control-drones-using-thoughts/ 2025 – The Rise of Neural Interfaces https://www.futuristmatt.com/2025-the-rise-of-neural-interfaces MAKING A BETTER BRAIN: SCIENTISTS JUST DISCOVERED A NEW KIND OF BRAIN CELL https://americandigitalnews.com/index.php/2017/08/13/making-a-better-brain-scientists-just-discovered-a-new-kind-of-brain-cell/ the brain-computer interface is coming https://thebulletin.org/2020/09/the-brain-computer-interface-is-coming-and-we-are-so-not-ready-for-it/ DARPA - PREEMPT (HR001118S0017) Project DEFUSE https://newsrescue.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/defuse-project-drastic-analysis-1.pdf DARPA Wants to Fix Soldiers’ Mental Issues With Brain Implants https://www.themarysue.com/darpa-brain-implants/ Future soldiers to use synthetic telepathy on the DARPA has electronic-photonic integrated chip https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2016/02/darpa-has-electronic-photonic.html brain to brain interface https://idstch.com/technology/biosciences/future-soldiers-to-use-synthetic-telepathy-on-the-battlefield-or-brain-to-brain-communication-enabled-by-brain-to-brain-interfaces-bbi/ Connected: The Fascinating Future of Brain-Computer Interfaces https://brainworldmagazine.com/connected-the-fascinating-future-of-brain-computer-interfaces/ What is a brain-computer interface? Everything you need to know https://www.bgp4.com/2019/12/09/what-is-a-brain-computer-interface-everything-you-need-to-know-about-bcis-neural-interfaces-and-the-future-of-mind-reading-computers/ DARPA Announces Funding For a High-Resolution, Implantable Neural Interface https://www.borntoengineer.com/darpa-high-resolution-implantable-neural-interface $21.6 million funding from DARPA to build window into the brain https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/news/216-million-funding-darpa-build-window-brain The project is one of six funded this year by DARPA’s Neural Engineering System Design program – part of the federal’s government’s Brain Initiative – to develop implantable, biocompatible “neural interfaces” that can compensate for visual or hearing deficits. The awards https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2017-07-10 BRAVE NEW WORLD: ‘Metabolic Dominance’, DARPA Wants To Create Mind-Controlled Weapons Of War https://rielpolitik.com/2019/05/25/brave-new-world-metabolic-dominance-darpa-wants-to-create-mind-controlled-weapons-of-war-by-dagny-taggart/ (PDF) The Future of Neural Networks https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230899572_The_Future_of_Neural_Networks The Secret History of Diplomats and Invisible Weapons https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/08/25/the-secret-history-of-diplomats-and-invisible-weapons-russia-cuba/ Pfizer's Military Connections, and Moderna's Too-mRNA https://everydayconcerned.net/2021/04/22/pfizers-military-connections-and-modernas-too-mrna-vaccines-come-from-darpa-and-seem-to-be-operating-as-neuro-bioweapons-as-per-dr-sucharit-bhakdis-description/ The Invasion is Happening NOW...Taking the STEP, Taking Your Emotions! https://rumble.com/vyc7vr-the-invasion-is-happening-now...taking-the-step-taking-your-emotions.html Could Google Become Skynet? 8 Products That Prove It's Already There https://rumble.com/vt7v1e-could-google-become-skynet-8-products-that-prove-its-already-there.html “Targeted Individuals” are Non-Consensual Subjects in Criminal, Clandestine, Classified “Top Secret” MK ULTRA-Extended Mind & Behavior Control/Torture Experimentation by Joint Military/Intel/Justice/Academic Institutions, as well as Targets of COINTELPRO and Electronic Warfare https://youarenotmybigbrother.blog/2020/08/02/targeted-individuals-are-non-consensual-subjects-in-criminal-clandestine-classified-top-secret-mkultra-extended-mind-behavior-control-torture-experimentatio/ Apparatus and method for remotely monitoring and altering brain waves https://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=3951134.PN.&OS=PN/3951134&RS=PN/3951134 Remote Neural Monitoring Satellite Harassment/Terrorism Awareness! http://www.stopthecrime.net/Remote%20Neural%20Monitoring.pdf CIA Infiltrated 17 area groups gave out LSD http://jfk.hood.edu/Collection/Weisberg%20Subject%20Index%20Files/C%20Disk/CIA%20Domestic%20Intelligence%20Part%201/Item%20124.pdf HORRIFIC Human Rights Violations: The Unleashing of Beamed Non-Kinetic Energy Weapons Termed “Non-lethal” for Vicious Police & Military Civilian Assaults https://youarenotmybigbrother.blog/2020/10/31/the-unleashing-of-beamed-horror-non-kenetic-energy-weapons-termed-non-lethal/ The Illuminati’s Trauma Based Mind Control https://truegeorge.com/2015/06/08/the-illuminatis-trauma-based-mind-control/ Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) https://truegeorge.com/2015/04/21/extremely-low-frequency-elf/ The "gyrotron resonance maser", a machine that talks to the brain The PREMA scanner" ("Personal Radio and Electromagnetic Frequency Allocation”) identifies the unique frequency of a brain https://gangstalkingmindcontrolcults.com/targeted-individualsv2krnm/ Remote Neural Monitoring, Voice to Skull (V2K) Key Evidence/Proof- explanatory youtube and article https://www.information-book.com/electromagnetic-harassment-health-attacks/scientific-facts-on-mind-control/remote-neural-monitoring/#:~:text=The%20%22gyrotron%20resonance,of%20a%20brain Voice of God https://truegeorge.com/2017/02/21/voice-of-god/ Chemtrails https://educate-yourself.org/ct/ Total Population Control Agenda https://www.sacredintuitiveelements.com/1309/total-population-control/ Interfacing Graphene-Based Materials With Neural Cells https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324450686_Interfacing_Graphene-Based_Materials_With_Neural_Cells Effects of Graphene-Based Materials on the Behavior of Neural Stem Cells Influence of functional groups on toxicity of carbon nanomaterials https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333983755_Influence_of_functional_groups_on_toxicity_of_carbon_nanomaterials https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342682747_Effects_of_Graphene-Based_Materials_on_the_Behavior_of_Neural_Stem_Cells Interfacing Graphene-Based Materials With Neural Cells https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324450686_Interfacing_Graphene-Based_Materials_With_Neural_Cells Effects of Graphene-Based Materials on the Behavior of Neural Stem Cells https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342682747_Effects_of_Graphene-Based_Materials_on_the_Behavior_of_Neural_Stem_Cells Elon Musk's Neuralink brain chip demo explained An Integrated Brain-Machine Interface Platform With Thousands of Channels https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31642810/ NEURALINK 2021 https://neuralink.com/ ElonMuskNeuralink https://elonmuskneuralink.com/ Neuralink: Can Elon Musk's Brain Chip Implant Create Superhumans https://www.sciencetimes.com/articles/32139/20210707/neuralink-elon-musks-brain-chip-implant-create-superhumans.htm Elon Musk's Neuralink 'shows monkey playing Pong with mind .. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-56688812 Interfacing Graphene-Based Materials With Neural Cells https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnsys.2018.00012/full original found on New Earth Project https://web.archive.org/web/20190613061058/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ol3tAxnNccY&feature=youtu.be

RFK Jr. Explores Why Americans Are So Sick - Speaking with Dr. Tom Lankering on GrassRootsTV, RFK Jr. unpacks when the chronic disease epidemic—now at an all-time high—began affecting Americans, and why our health authorities refuse to research the real causes. #NIH

Sorry Antarctica We're Closed Our Hidden Flat Earth This Area Admiral Byrd: “An Area As Big As The United States on the Other Side of the South Pole” According most flat earthers, there’s no such thing as the continent of Antarctica. In their imagination, Antarctica is not a continent, but a long ice wall enclosing the Earth. Without having anything to prove that assumption, they look anywhere for any quote they can mine and stumbled into this quote by Admiral Byrd “Strangely enough, there is left in the world today, an area as big as the United States, that’s never been seen by a human being. And that’s beyond the pole, on the other side of the south pole from Little America.” Flat earthers love to overimagine things and because of their lack of knowledge, Byrd’s statement is interpreted that there are lands beyond this ice wall and ‘the powers’ are hiding these lands from us. ‘The powers’ are secretly exploiting these lands for their own purpose and are guarding every inch of them. That’s a nice story and an uncritical person might even see it as reality. But if we take a good look at a map of Antarctica, and mark the location of Little America and the South Pole, it is not hard to see what Admiral Byrd had in mind. At Byrd’s time, the other side of Antarctica was unexplored. Everyone who set his feet on Antarctica began their journey from practically the same side of Antarctica as Byrd did: the Ross Ice Shelf. No one had done it from the other side. The other side of Antarctica was unexplored at that time. This is what Byrd was refering to. And taking ice shelves into account, the area of it is practically the same as the continental United States. 81 Government & Affiliate Documents that admit Flat Earth It's A PDF Download. https://www.terre-plate.org/library/CIA%20NASA%20Documents/81%20Government%20_%20Affiliate%20Documents%20that%20admit%20Flat%20Earth-converted.pdf If a scientific conspiracy theory is funny, that doesn’t mean it’s a joke. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_America_(exploration_base) Debunking the Flat Earth Ice Wall. Part 1 of 4 of the The Flat Earth Antarctica Conspiracy. This is the first of a 4 part series on the belief of flat earthers that Antarctica is a conspiracy in a variety of ways. We cover each point separately since this topic is so extensive because they've built up so many layers of conspiracy around this continent. This article will be debunking the ice wall flat earthers claim exist, and the other articles will be as follows: As we point out in our article, The Flat Earth Resurgence , there has been a huge rise in people who have actually rejected the sphere earth model completely and seem to truly believe the earth is flat! We point out that in order to be able to explain proven phenomenon we see every day in real life, flat earthers have to build more and more unproven and crazy theories on top of crazy theories until their idea looks more like a Rube Goldberg machine than a model of reality. What Flat Earthers Believe About Antarctica In my opinion, the most bizarre of their conspiracies is the one about Antarctica. They have built so many ideas on top of ideas that their beliefs about Antarctica have become so incredibly ludicrous, you couldn't make up the things they will tell you about this frozen continent. First of all, they do not believe Antarctica is a continent, per se, but a frozen 'ice rim' the circumference of the entire planet planet. Secondly, they believe there is no 24 hour sun on Antarctica during their summer months, and they believe no one can go to Antarctica, because if it were allowed, someone might find the ice wall and prove to the world the earth is flat (really!)! To keep the Rube Goldberg theme going, in order to prevent people from going and exploring for this ice rim, they believe the UN has a fleet of ships patrolling the entire circumference of the earth, preventing any ships from going there to find the ice wall. They also believe the Antarctic Treaty is proof of this, and there is a multinational agreement to keep anyone from going to Antarctica and finding the truth! Conveniently, this Treaty designed to hide a flat earth is published right on the internet for all to see and read. They believe this is all a conspiracy by the leaders of dozens of nations, the UN, shipping companies, airlines, private companies who deal with the government, and even satellite cable companies, to hide the real truth from you. They will even bring Admiral Byrd and Wikileaks into the mess to 'prove' their conspiracy! All of which we will show is utter nonsense later in the series. When asked the reason for the biggest conspiracy on the planet it usually illicits nonsensical answers such as "Well, they are hiding land from us!" or "There is nothing that would quench the exploratory spirit of the most curious creature on the planet by telling him the earth is a sphere!" or the religious reason of "They are hiding God from us", as if an omnipotent being would be able to accomplish anything and everything except making spheres, or somehow a flat plane with an impenetrable dome would naturally harbor more land or incite more of an exploratory spirit than the ability to go into the infinity of space would! Seriously, I could not even make this stuff up if I were to try. These are actual beliefs of the vast majority of flat earthers, and why I chose to make this series to debunk this nonsense and provide some sanity to this Antarctica conspiracy theory. The Ice Wall Debunked The entire start of this conspiracy is their belief in an ice wall. This belief is mainly because, as we point out in our article The Flat Earth Map is Actually a Projection Map of a Globe, despite having every GPS coordinate on nearly every point on the earth, satellite images of the entire earth, and having nearly every distance accurately mapped between every point on earth, flat earthers have not been able to use crowdsourcing of their tens of thousands of members, blockchain, the internet, and supercomputers to create an accurate map with even correct distances between points. It should be amazingly easy to map a planar earth to a planar surface, but so far, this feat has eluded them. So, instead of using modern technology to survey their fantasy world and create an accurate 'flat earth map' they have arbitrarily chosen to use a globe projection map with Antarctica depicted as an ice rim around the world, as shown in the image below. Somehow, inexplicably, flat earthers decided this depiction of Antarctica as an ice rim is reality. However, there is zero evidence of this ice wall, and plenty of evidence it is merely a continent present at the southern pole of the earth, including the fact that it has been circumnavigated multiple times, including This Successful Solo Navigation by Lisa Blair in 2017 and there is even an Annual Antarctic Cup Race complete with a 'racetrack' of electronic gates and lanes. Not to mention the fact it's been surveyed in many different ways. All of the circumnavigations and surveys, that have led to the depictions of Antarctica on a globe, point to the continent having a circumference of less than 15,000 miles, both as shown on the sailors' GPS devices, the length of time it took the circumnavigations to occur, and results of surveys. However, on the globe projection map that flat earthers use, the circumference of Antarctica must be somewhere between 60,000- 78,000 miles. Here's the math that you can do yourself to show this. I put in the coordinates for the very tip of Antarctica in South America to the topmost portion of land at the top of North America, to make as straight a line as possible on Google maps (Note that when you do this on Google maps, the line will be slightly curved. I wonder why) and got the coordinates of and for a total distance of just at 10,000 miles (10,000.23 mi to be exact). This is actually somewhat too short of a distance, since the center of the Arctic Circle would be higher than my coordinates, and the center of the Antarctic Circle would also be lower. But we'll give flat earthers this 'conservative' estimate to show the approximate circumference of the interior of the ice wall. So, we put in the formula of: C=2πr to get the total circumference of: 62831.85 miles. But we can add on even more distance using the distance between the actual coordinates. Google maps will not allow these coordinates to be put in to get directions, so I used TimeandDate.com which gives us the distance of 12,427 miles from North Pole to South Pole, which would give us the staggering number of 78083.81 miles of the earth's circumference. This would represent the exterior of the ice wall. I could do the calculations on Google maps to be more accurate, but you get the idea of the giant distances involved here, in determining the size of the ice rim. The distance is between 60,000 to 78,000 miles. This is a 4 -5 times larger than the 14,000-15,000 mile distance aerial surveys, satellite imagery, and circumnavigation have revealed. An error of 400-500%, or of approximately 45,000 miles! The Science Sphere Earthers Have Done on Antarctica While flat earthers are making memes and inventing conspiracies, sphere earthers are doing aerial and satellite surveys of Antarctica to create accurate maps for navigation and further exploration. Some surveys that have been done are: THE FALKLAND ISLANDS AND DEPENDENCIES AERIAL SURVEY EXPEDITION: carried out in 1956-1957. You can see many of the studies done from this expedition at the Cambridge University Website for the Scott Polar Research Institute The British Antarctic Survey: Where you can take your pick of one of the many types of maps they have created, such as topographic maps, geologic maps, digital maps for use in GPS devices and for pilots, and magnetic anomaly maps compiled from satellite and ground data by 22 different scientific organizations since 1957 The Soviets have done at least 35 Antarctic expeditions. You can see the abstract of research on this study entitled Soviet geological maps of the Prince Charles Mountains, East Antarctic Shield Antarctica Gamburtsev Project: Surveyed and discovered entire mountain ranges underneath the ice. This is the 1970-1971 Typewritten Report from the Antarctic Research Division of the Australian Government The Australian Government has an entire Website discussing their activities in Antarctica, including the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition There was a Prince Charles Mountains Expedition of Germany and Australia where they did extensive geodetic surveying and ice radar surveying There's even a McMurdo-Antarctica Lidar Project attempting to map the continent with lidar. You can even search the Australian Antarctic Data Center and the Cambridge Scott Polar Research Institute Database for specific information about the thousands of expeditions, surveys, and even get the satellite imagery that has been done on Antarctica. There is a mountain of information and evidence that flat earthers must completely ignore in order to maintain their ridiculous illusion And the Evidence from the Flat Earthers? No flat earther has done any aerial surveying or taken satellite imagery of this ice wall even though they believe their impenetrable dome is at least 200 miles in height and so could easily get a satellite or plane over it to get images, surveys, or lidar. None have Circumnavigated Antarctica Like Lisa Blair, attempted a Solo Crossing Like Henry Worsely tried to do, and it seems as though none have even bothered to 'survey' it in the comfort of an airliner by taking this Quantus Antarctic Tourist Flight to see for themselves that it is a continent and not an ice rim. It seems that none have figured out ANY way to get the slightest bit of evidence of this 'ice rim' or the edge of the world they claim is there. In fact, this promotional video for the Quantus flight Yes, the one entitled Flat Earth Hoax below) explains that they have NINETEEN different flight paths over the continent, and that they have many repeat customers for this tourist flight that flies over Antarctica for 4 to 5 HOURS. There is a huge amount of footage of Antarctica in this video, and certainly there are thousands of tourists with hours of video from this flight. At an average airspeed of 550 miles per hour, the flight would cover over 1000 miles in two hours of flying with over 100 miles of view in each direction. If you look at the flat earth map, at no point could that ice wall possibly be 1000 miles wide. If there were an ice rim around the earth, someone on that flight would have noticed. In fact, that flight would simply not be allowed if there were a massive worldwide cover up to hide a flat earth from us. I suspect some flat earther might argue that they are flying over the North Pole. However, the flight leaves from Australia and takes 12 hours out and back. There is no possibility such a great distance could be covered in 12 hours, let alone have 4 hours of flight time over the ice in the North Pole. A while back, there was a GoFundMe Campaign to get flat earthers to Antarctica to prove the flat earth, but It Was Canceled After a Negative Article About Flat Earth . Cancelled after a negative article? What? Sounds like true science believers who are dedicated to the truth, right? Every once in a while, they may put up a picture of an iceberg or ice floe and claim it's THE ice rim, but these images of a small chunk of ice could be taken anywhere in the world and are certainly not evidence of a continuous wall of ice 60,000 miles in circumference. In other words, they have zero evidence of this ice wall. The only thing they have are wild, speculative claims with no evidence to back them up. Here's one of the images they use to prove the existence of a 60,000 mile ice wall being guarded by a fleet of what would need to be 10's of thousands of armed ships. Interestingly enough, the actual image in the meme disproves their belief system! Too bad they did not bother to find the source of this image, and just liked the way it looked. It is an image from a blog called Our World Heritage. The ship in the meme above is the FS Polarstern, a private ship and not an armed UN gunship, contracted on the author's trip to Antarctica to take supplies to people at the Neumayer Station, a permanent research outpost on the ice shelf. I soundly Debunk Ice Wall Memes and provide more details of this image and the story behind it on that page. This image is simply a dishonest way to get gullible people to believe in the flat earth cult. Can they get any more ridiculous? Well, keep reading to Part 2: Debunking the Flat Earth Antarctic Treaty Conspiracy to find out how flat earthers have concocted an insane story about a fleet of armed UN ships preventing anyone from finding the ice wall! Debunking The Antarctic Treaty Conspiracy. Part 2 of 4: The Flat Earth Antarctica Conspiracy. Welcome to Part 2 of this 4 part series on Debunking the Flat Earth Antarctic Conspiracy. Since flat earthers have turned this topic into a massive Rube Goldberg machine of conspiracy on top of conspiracy, the necessity for a four part series became evident, in order to debunk each separate part of this whacky conspiracy. So, here are the sections: As you read in Debunking the Ice Wall , flat earthers believe the Antarctica is part of a huge, worldwide conspiracy theory to hide the existence of a flat earth. They believe that Anarctica is not a continent, per se, but a 60,000-78,000 mile in circumference ice wall that borders the entire planet and acting as a container for the earth’s waters, thereby holding them in and keeping ships from falling off the edge of the earth. We debunked the idea that there is an ice wall, providing tens of thousands of pieces of evidence from multiple countries of hundreds of expeditions that have provided us with the shape of the continent as seen on multiple maps. The data contributing to this have included, but are not limited to: Satellite observations Aerial surveys Lidar Ground level surveys Circumnavigation Against all reason, flat earthers reject this evidence, demanding that every scientific study, every satellite image, every account of scientists, and even the accounts of pilots and those on flights going from Sydney to Johannesburg visualizing Antarctica while doing so are simply lying and are part of a worldwide conspiracy involving millions of people who have all remained silent for almost 70 years now. The Antarctic Treaty is a Nefarious Conspiracy! Proof of this conspiracy, according to flat earthers, is the Antarctic Treaty. There really is one, and you can Read The Antarctic Treaty Here along with the Protocol for Environmental Protection portion and determine for yourself what it says. Flat earthers, however, who have obviously not read it, claim that it a multinational treaty preventing anyone from stepping foot on Antarctica, so that no one will find the ice wall! They believe it’s the only “closed continent”, and heavily guarded against any humans not in on the conspiracy! What it ACTUALLY does is to prevent anyone, including any governments, from, for instance: Declaring any of the land private property Doing mining operations Removing or damaging sensitive flora and fauna Building a housing tract or a business Setting up a nuclear missile site Using it as a waste dump or any number of things that would permanently harm the land or prevent it from being used freely by others for enjoyment In essence, it recognizes that Antarctica is a special place, worthy of conservation and protection, and that it should be preserved for its majestic natural properties rather than being exploited for its natural resources or turned into a nuclear waste dumping ground, for instance. Flat earthers, however, actually believe that no one can even GO there or even fly OVER it, despite the fact that: There is a Facebook group with thousands of members entitled "I've Been to Antarctica" Dozens of travel blogs report their experiences in Antarctica Close to 5 major cruise ship companies go there Many companies do private tours Thousands of scientific and private expeditions have gone there People have done solo expeditions Tourist flights land there, and the profile picture for this article has an image of a plane landing on Blue Ice Runway in Antarctica There is even a Quantas 'tourist flight' that spends about 5 hours flying over the continent simply for the sake of tourists being able to view it from the air In fact, this scientific study even states, "However, rapidly growing human activity is accelerating threats to biodiversity. " Another states, "With rapidly increasing human activity in Antarctica, terrestrial plant communities are at risk of damage or destruction." Rapidly increasing human activity? In a place no one is allowed to go or they will be stopped, or even killed? According to flat earthers, none of these reports of 'human activity' on Antarctica are real, but are just part of the giant ruse necessary to keep us brainwashed that Antarctica is really a continent! The flights don't exist, the cruises don't exist, none of the expeditions exist. They are all fake and engineered at high cost to keep us brainwashed and believing the earth is round when it's really flat! They will actually argue that images, like this one below of a boat of tourists in Antarctica, are just staged, are really done in the Arctic, and the participants are part of a CIA psy-op and worldwide conspiracy. And the Antarctic Treaty is proof of this conspiracy! Antarctic Treaty Protected Areas The Antarctic Treaty DOES, however, outline some special areas called Antarctic Conservation Biogeographic Regions (ACBRs) that are off-limits to anyone without a permit, and permits have requirements such as being limited to people with certain qualifications doing scientific studies. Many parts of the world have special areas like this for various reasons, such as safety or protecting wildlife. Here's the map of the ACBR's. Even Yellowstone National Park has several of these areas in order to, for instance, prevent people from doing things like boiling themselves alive in hot springs, like a man did this year. Mexico has beaches that are completely off-limits to humans when tortoises are nesting, and Belize has caves that are off-limits in order to protect the precious archeological treasures inside in-situ. Anyone who has traveled can likely point to different areas of the world that do similar things for various different reasons. Special protected areas are not new, not limited to Antarctica, and are should not even incite the slightest bit of thoughts about conspiracy, especially since, as you can see on the map above, these areas comprise a less than 2% non-contiguous area of Antarctica. One would be hard pressed to argue (although they still will) that barring the world from less than a non-contiguous 2% of the continent would prevent anyone from finding their mythological ice wall, were they so inclined to find it. There other argument is that there are military bases there not, of course, for strategic purposes, but for the sole purpose of preventing anyone suspecting we live on a flat earth from finding the ice wall. Well, there are military bases in most of the geographically strategic places in the world as well. This hardly comprises evidence of a conspiracy any more than the US military having a base on Midway should cause someone to suspect they are hiding a magic portal to another realm there. Did Wikileaks Prove the Conspiracy? Flat earthers like to point to a Wikileaks mention of Antarctica to PROVE their conspiracy that you are not allowed to go there. In fact, they put a DATE on it when you'll again be able to explore Antarctica. It's in 2046! Well, they get it wrong again due to their lack of even 2 minutes of fact checking mixed with their propensity to repeat the claims of anything that supports their bias. Ironically, note the Wikileaks image of a dripping globe below. I would think that the dripping globe would hardly make flat earth proponents latch onto WikiLeaks for support of their conspiracy, but flat earthers aren't likely to see the irony. You Can Read the Wikileaks Document Here Yourself, and see that when they say there is no EXPLORATION until 2046, they are referring to RESOURCE exploration, such as mining. They are not referring to an inability to go there and look for the elusive ice rim, they are referring to your inability to claim the land as your own, bring heavy machinery in, and do some strip mining! Sounds like a nefarious plot, doesn’t it? What Wikileaks was 'leaking' is that there appears to be an effort by certain countries to change the Treaty, or violate it so that they can exploit Antarctica for its natural resources. Here is the exact quote from the WikiLeaks document above. Here is the Wikileaks quote that has been taken entirely out of context. "There's believed to be a great deal of resources in the area and exploration is banned until at least 2046, I believe, unless another provision is added to the treaty." Note how it says, "... exploration is banned", but has the qualifier of 'resources' in the same sentence. So, flat earthers are not even bothering to read the entire SENTENCE from Wikileaks before passing it around as evidence of a conspiracy to keep people from finding the ice wall. This is the level flat earthers fall to in their dishonesty, gullibility, and cognitive dissonance. A Fleet of Armed United Nations Ships Prevent Anyone From Going to Antarctica! Yes, flat earthers REALLY do believe that there is an entire fleet of UN warships that are in place to forcibly stop anyone from exploring Antarctica and finding the ice wall. Many flat earth threads will refer to Antarctica as the most heavily guarded place on the planet. Where they get this ridiculous idea is beyond me. The UN would literally have to have tens of thousands of boats to patrol the 60,000-78,000 miles of coastline just to prevent the odd person from exploring land that anyone can book a tour to, like the many people who have taken the Loftleidir Icelandic Boeing 757 to go see the last great wilderness of earth for themselves. Heck, you can experience Antarctica from the safety of a hot tub while sipping Champagne with your grandmother, if you wish. There is just literally no evidence at all of this fleet of tens of thousands of gunboats that would require something close to a hundred thousand sailors, maintenance yards all over the world, refueling stations, food suppliers, etc. If there is any evidence of this fleet or people with video of UN gunboats threatening them, well, no flat earther has ever shown it to anyone. Maybe they are just keeping this damning evidence that supports a massive conspiracy to themselves for the time being. But until then, we have to declare the dearth of evidence on this subject in the realm of a ridiculous wild claim on the part of flat earthers. Nothing in Wikileaks or in the Antarctic Treaty itself supports a conspiracy to hide an ice wall or provides money or resources for a fleet of UN Gunboats, and certainly no one has ever filmed armed UN boats turning them away from the coastline after funding an exploratory campaign. These are just more unfounded ridiculous claims made up simply to answer questions about why flat earthers don’t just go to Antarctica, find the ice wall, and prove to the world the earth is flat once and for all. Since they are incapable or unwilling to do any such thing, they invented a complex myth to keep them theorizing from their basements instead of doing on-site scientific research to prove or disprove their claims as actual scientists would be doing. Debunking the Flat Earth Admiral Byrd Conspiracy. Part 3 of 4: The Flat Earth Antarctica Conspiracy. Welcome to part 3 of this 4 part series on the Flat Earth Antarctica Conspiracy Theory. Here are the other parts in this 4 part series. And we'll have one article that is a compilation article if you prefer to read or link to all 4 parts at once: Flat earthers are so desperate to find evidence of this ice wall they have somehow latched onto Admiral Byrd as providing not only evidence of an ice wall and flat earth, but evidence there are lands BEYOND this ice wall the Antarctic Treaty is designed to hide! They claim part of the massive conspiracy to hide flat earth from us is because there is much more land to be explored, and that governments are secretly exploiting these lands and using the resources to make themselves rich! And Admiral Byrd is proof of this. But Admiral Byrd neither said nor implied any such thing. Flat earthers simply make ridiculous claims that are merely passed on and repeated like a game of telephone by people who are unable or unwilling to do their own research, or who take things out of context to either confirm their own bias or be dishonest. You can watch An Interview with Admiral Byrd here, and what he actually said, at 1:41 is, "Strangely enough, there is left in the world today, an area as big as the United States, that's never been seen by a human being. And that's beyond the pole, on the other side of the south pole from Little America [his base on Antarctica]". Flat earthers take this to mean that there is land BEYOND Antarctica, and modern day Americans who don't understand the context of the time might be excused from misunderstanding or being confused about that statement, however just a bit of fact checking would clarify what he meant. Byrd was referring TO Antarctica, as the vast majority had not been explored yet. At the time, Admiral Byrd was hugely popular, and people had followed his exploits in Antarctic and certainly knew that Little America was his base, which is why neither he nor the interviewers felt the need to explain what Little America was. But to many, it sounds like he said, "Middle America", and it makes it a bit confusing. However, what he meant by "The other side of the pole from Little America" is easily discerned when looking at this map of Antarctica with his Little America base on it. He was simply being specific as to the unexplored region of Antarctica that was on the opposite side of the South Pole from his base. No conspiracy, just specificity. Hilariously for flat earthers, who obviously have not watched the video themselves, later in the interview, Byrd uses the phrase, "The bottom of the world" many times. The time stamps are at approximately: The 'bottom of the world? How could a flat earther latch onto someone who talks about 'the bottom of the world' as someone who is talking about a flat earth? Antarctica being the bottom of the world would be much more consistent with the current model of a sphere than of a flat plane where Antarctica is an ice rim. Additionally, in the first part of the interview, he refers to Antarctica as "the size of the United States". He was actually pretty close, as you can see in the image below, to the size of the continent as we know it that is approximately 14,000-15,000 miles in circumference, and not an 'ice rim' that is the circumference of the entire world. If an explorer had found an ice rim so large, it circled the earth and was at least 60,000 miles long (as we go over in Part 1: Debunking the Flat Earth Ice Wall to show how we arrived at that figure), referring to such a find as "the size of the United States" would be patently underestimating the vast unimaginable size of the area, and would just not be how one would describe an ice rim that circled the world. Even more, the interviewer asks Byrd at 2:10, "Since you've been to both extremities of earth..." and Byrd merely answers the question without correcting the interviewer. What would "both extremities of the earth" mean on a flat earth? Even later, at approximately 5:30, the interviewer asks, tongue in cheek, "I've heard it said there are 7 continents in the world and the only one that has never been seen by a woman is Antarctica. Is that really true". Byrd answers by saying, "As far as I know, that's true." Even more interestingly is that an Admiral Byrd stamp was released in 1934, very much while Admiral Byrd was still alive, and the stamp features a globe with Antarctica at the bottom of the earth, right where he suggested it would be, and right where maps show it to be today. There is nothing to suggest that Byrd would have been dismayed or amused by this stamp. It was intended as a tribute to him, and there is no reason to believe that he thought otherwise about it. If anything, these show that Byrd is a sphere earther, talking about the bottom of the world, both extremities of the earth, a globe stamp in his honor, and the seven continents that we still know today. Certainly, it does not suggest a HIDDEN continent that, of course no woman would have stepped on either. Byrd also conducted long range reconnaissance missions by plane over Antarctica, mapping over a million square miles, giving us much of the shape of the continent as we know it today. Was Admiral Byrd a Friend or Foe? To add even more color to this conspiracy, there are flat earthers in another camp, who believe that Admiral Byrd is not telling us about the lands beyond Antarctica, but that he's part of the conspiracy to hide the ice wall from us. And his expeditions FOUND the ice wall and subsequently started this whole multinational conspiracy to cover up this truth from us! Their 'proof' of this is that Admiral Byrd was a freemason! Other evidence they cite is that in later expeditions, he was financed by the US Government, and this, too, means he was lying. On the expedition financed by the government, it was concluded 6 months early, and that is proof that they found something so important, so secret that they were forced to end the expedition. The truth is not so sexy or mysterious. The expedition was plagued with mechanical issues and incredibly harsh weather. So, which is it, is he a friend of flat earthers, talking about "lands beyond" Antarctica, and telling the world the earth is flat? Or is he a nefarious freemason illuminati who is lying in order to hide flat earth? Flat earthers are divided on the topic. But something about Admiral Byrd seems to incite conspiracy theories of one sort or another. There are conspiracies about him giving testimony of having seen UFO's by the UFO conspiracy folks, and hollow earth theorists claim he did a 'secret' flight over either the north or south pole (the sources are divided on this) in 1947, where he found the opening to the center of the earth and met people who lived there. This claim has been around for so long that as far back as 1961, The New York Times put out a challenge for anyone who had evidence to bring it forth for publication; and even The Hollow Earth Insider website did a long, well-researched piece that debunks this claim, believes it was actually a lie intended to discredit hollow earthers, and, again, offered a challenge to anyone with evidence to bring it forward. But instead of this Byrd flat earth conspiracy dying due to lack of evidence, flat earthers have revitalized it, probably because they are desperate to find something, anything, to back up their wild claims. Rather than providing evidence of flat earth, this conspiracy, along with the Antarctic Treaty Conspiracy just gives more weight to the bizarre mentality and desperation of flat earthers. In order to get scientific recognition of their flat world, they could go about commissioning a satellite, plane, boat, exploration party, or some such thing that the growing group of multiple tens of thousands of flat earthers could fund with a Kickstarter campaign. Instead, they avoid getting any real evidence, like doing an expedition to Antarctica, or even just sending up a satellite, and instead revitalize long-dead conspiracy theories by taking words of a man long-since dead, take them out of context, don't research anything, make wild claims, and expect you to believe in massive conspiracy theories of which there is no evidence. Unfortunately, it seems that there are many gullible people falling for this nonsense, and their cult seems to be growing by leaps and bounds. Yes, Flat Earthers, There Really Is 24 Hour Sunlight in Antarctica. Part 4 of 4: The Flat Earth Antarctica Conspiracy. Welcome to the 4th of this 4 part series on debunking a very long and complicated conspiracy theory about Antarctica that flat earthers have concocted. In this part, we'll discuss the very real belief by flat earthers that there is no 24 hour sun in Antarctica. This article started out as a single article about debunking this conspiracy, but because there are so many convoluted aspects to this conspiracy theory, it turned into a 4 part series in order that the conspiracy be debunked thoroughly such that flat earthers could not come back and have an objection to any part of the debunk and that, by the time the series is complete, any rational person would be able to see that there absolutely is no conspiracy theory about Antarctica. Where Does this Denial of 24 Hour Sunlight in Antarctica Come From? First of all, the question is why do flat earthers believe such a thing? Well, as you'll see, a [24 HHour Sunlight Sunlight in Antarctica is Impossible is Impossible on a FlaFEarth. There is simply no flat earth model possible-series) that can account for this known and provable phenomenon. Therefore they have a great need to deny anything that will prove their belief is impossible. However, as we'll also show, denying 24 hour sun in Antarctica is actually irrelevant, and simply having days with more than 12 hours of sunlight in the southern hemisphere is impossible anyway, so their denial of 24 hour daylight in Antarctica is pointless to maintain their delusional impossible belief system. It's Simple Logic to Believe There is 24 Hour Sun in Antarctica Until I started looking into this flat earth discussion, I had no idea that anyone even questioned such a well-established fact! It seems ridiculous on it's face and, upon further investigation, I found it to actually be as ridiculous as it sounds. So, first of all, just a small investigation would allow one to accurately predict that Antarctica would have 24 hour sunlight. Even flat earthers do not dispute there is 24 hour sunlight in the Arctic in their summer and 24 hours of darkness in their winter. They also do not dispute that the equator has 12 hours of sunlight every day all year. But, as with most flat earth concepts, things start to go haywire in the southern hemisphere because the Flat Earth Map is Actually a Globe Projection Map and, as such, the southern hemisphere is incredibly distorted. Things that are possible on a sphere due to it's symmetry become impossible on a flat model that does not have such symmetry, and so they are forced to build crazy explanations around these discrepancies. And this model of a flat earth sun shows that there is no possible way for the sun to light up Antarctica 24 hours a day, so they simply MUST reject that it really happens. In fact, I had one guy argue so circularly, that he showed me how it was impossible on this flat earth model, and how that 'debunked' that it actually existed in reality! We can show, through simple logic, that Antarctica SHOULD have 24 hour sunlight on December 21st, the southern hemipshere summer solstice. Note, the latitudes and lengths of sunlight are APPROXIMATE. It is not meant to be an exact model of the exact times of daylight at the exact latitudes (flat earthers focus on minor details and will reject an image such as this because it's 'a cartoon' and it's not exact to the minute). Instead, this is intended to be an approximation. A visual of how much daylight occurs in each of these approximate areas on earth. The big picture. An overall view of how sunlight WORKS on earth in reality. The length of daylight for these areas were taken from SunCalc.net and so far as I know, flat earthers have no argument with any of these times taken from these types of websites, such as this one or DateandTime.info except in regards to Antarctica. So, what time DO they think it is in Antarctica on December 21st? Most will just simply not answer that question even though it would seem perfectly logical for Antarctica to have 24 hour days at the peak of it's summer. Flat Earthers Don't Agree On This Either As with most of their ideas, flat earthers are divided on the subject (or simply ignorant of their topic), and flat earthers will sometimes claim that a map called the Gleason map is actually a map of flat earth, despite the fact the patent itself says it's a azimuthal equidistant projection map, but that is another topic for an article I'll do in the near future. The Gleason Map actually shows 24 hour sun in Antarctica on the winter solstice through a clever calculation key. Note that the white part in the center is what would actually be DARK on earth. Unfortunately, this would require the sun to have an oblong hole through the center to accomplish this, as you can see above. Obviously, this does not comport with reality, nor do they have an explanation as to how the sun could cause such a pattern. Evidence for a 24 Hour Sun in Antarctica We first came to know Antarctica had 24 hour sun by the anecdotes of the original explorers. We discuss the Admiral Byrd Antarctica Conspiracy Theory on that page, and it's in some of the writings of his company in which the midnight sun is discussed. Bob Young did a Handwritten Narrative of his expedition with Byrd in 1933-1935 and he mentions it several times. Since then, we have possibly thousands of references to it on travel blogs, people on expeditions, people doing research, and even in documentaries such as Antarctica: A Year on the Ice. There are also some nice time lapses of the 24 Hour sun in Antarctica, such as this one done at the Scott Base: Predictably, flat earthers have done debunk videos declaring every one of them 'fake' for various reasons they can never quite explain, even though the end of video actually shows he used ANOTHER camera to take a time lapse video of his camera taking the time lapse video for verification! It's amazing the amount of hate and anger by flat earthers in the comments section, who accuse the photographer of faking the video over and over, but provide zero evidence that he did. However, This Page on Metabunk adds the video above and many other time lapse videos from 24 webcams in the Antarctic, and goes into great detail to debunk the claims that these are faked. Basically, the argument from flat earthers is that the watchers of these videos cannot be 100% sure that they are not faked, and somehow that is proof that they ARE faked! No evidence required. Their bias confirmation is such that they seem to honestly believe that the fact that these videos exist is proof they are faked! Circular logic anyone? So, since this is a discussion of science, the next question would be what evidence do we have of a 24 hour sun in Antarctica. Well, just a few minutes of research shows that hundreds of studies have been done on the effects of 24 hour sunlight and 24 hour darkness in Antarctica. Here are just a few: Plasma melatonin in the Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) under continuous daylight in Antarctica- the study reads, "Although daylight is continuous during the Antarctic summer there was a marked daily cycle of light intensity" Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in clinically healthy subjects adapted to living in Antarctica- the study reads, " In addition, they were seen to show the BP and HR circadian rhythms to be perfectly synchronized to the 24-h cycle, despite the permanent solar light..." Human seasonal and circadian studies in Antarctica (Halley, 75°S)- and states, "At the British Antarctic Survey base of Halley, 75°S, the sun does not rise for 110d in the winter and does not set for 100d in summer." Longitudinal study on circadian rhythms of plasma hormone levels during Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition. Hokkaido Journal of Medical Science 61(1): 121-133- and it reads, "Monthly mean plasma aldosterone level increased markedly in July, dark winter month and also in December, the month of midnight sun in Antarctica. I could literally go on and on showing the different studies that confirm this 24 hour sunlight and darkness phenomenon in the south pole that are perfectly symmetric to the north pole. But I would bore you with the length of the list, so I'll stop at just those few studies done by different research teams, and even from different countries. According to flat earthers, these are simply all lies and made up to simply hide the flat earth from us. They will not concede that any study is correct... and quite literally reject ALL scientific studies claiming that all scientists are just in on the conspiracy and are paid to fake these studies (unless one happens to have something they latch onto as 'evidence' of a flat earth. In that case, science is good!). Really, I could not make this up. If you cited 1000 studies on any particular subject, they will simply dismiss them with a laugh, tell you that you are brainwashed, and probably post a meme such as this one with no supporting evidence of how or why the study is wrong or faked. They just make blanket statements that outright reject anything that contradicts their belief system. The Globe Model Explains this Perfectly However, the globe model explains this phenomenon perfectly. It is not for nothing that the current scientific consensus is overwhelmingly on the side of the sphere model and not the flat earth model. Here is a depiction of the Sphere Earth Explanation for 24 Polar Sunlight. Now, which of these makes more sense to you? Complete denial of a phenomenon that has been soundly proven to exist This hand drawn key on a Globe Projection Map from the 1890's that requires the sun to have an oblong-shaped hole in it that we do not see in reality and that no flat earther in the over 100 years since it was created has made an actual 3d model of in over 100 years A fully formed 3d model that has been tested and honed for hundreds of years by scientists and researchers, that is undistorted, that GPS coordinates and Google maps that tens of thousands of people use everyday is based on, and that you can test with a toy globe and a flashlight to see if the model works properly? Flat earthers COULD just go there on one of the dozens of cruises and adventure tours that go there and find out for themselves what the sun is like in Antarctica on the longest days of the year in the southern hemipshere summer. But flat earthers, despite claiming that they want 'real science' and that everything should be observed to be proven, that they do not seem actually willing to do anything that would prove their contentions incorrect. They claim to be scientists, but will only believe or take as evidence that which confirms their bias. https://steemit.com/flatearth/@kerriknox/part-1-of-4-the-flat-earth-antarctica-conspiracy-debunking-the-ice-wall https://steemit.com/flatearth/@kerriknox/debunking-the-antarctic-treaty-part-2-of-4-the-flat-earth-antarctica-conspiracy https://steemit.com/flatearth/@kerriknox/debunking-the-flat-earth-admiral-byrd-conspiracy-part-3-of-4-the-flat-earth-antarctica-conspiracy https://steemit.com/science/@kerriknox/debunking-the-no-24-hour-sun-in-antarctica-claim-part-4-of-4-the-flat-earth-antarctica-conspiracy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_America_(exploration_base) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Antarctic_expeditions https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration Hitler's Frozen Base The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence whatever that it is not utterly absurd. - Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970 A wise man ... proportions his belief to the evidence - David Hume, 1711-1776 In the late 1930's, the Nazi's showed an interest in Antarctica and sent a expedition to survey a part of it and claim it for Germany, the claim was not continued but it sowed the seeds for a whole range of fantasies about secret things that might be going on. What really did happen? Neuschwabenland A little known German expedition to Antarctica from the 17th of December 1938 to the 12th of April 1939 on the ship MS Schwabenland had the purpose of claiming an area now known as Dronning Maud Land mainly to protect the German whaling industry. This area however had been previously explored by Norway and was formally claimed by the Norwegians in January 1939 after the Germans had set sail. The Schwabenland was equipped with a steam catapult and two Dornier Wal flying boats which were used to photographically survey 600,000 square kilometres. About a dozen aluminium flags were dropped from the aircraft at turning points of flight polygons and others were left by foot expeditions, none of these have ever been recovered. The land surveyed was claimed by Germany in August 1939 as "Neuschwabenland" named from the ship. The outbreak of war prevented two further planned expeditions and the possible building of a base, though most probably to the other side of Antarctica in the Pacific sector away from the Norwegian claim, the claim was abandoned in 1945. There is no evidence of any further German activity in Antarctica during World War 2. U-530 and U-977 On the morning of the 10th of July 1945, the German U-boat U-530 arrived at the Argentine naval base at Mar del Plata near Buenos Aires, two months after the German surrender and the end of the war in Europe on the 8th of May 1945. Rumours spread that it had brought Hitler, Eva Braun, Martin Bormann and others and had landed them on the coast of Patagonia or Antarctica before reaching Mar del Plata. A week later a Hungarian exile in Argentina, Ladislas Szabo wrote a detailed account in a local newspaper of how Hitler and his entourage had supposedly escaped Germany. The story quickly spread worldwide and versions of it appeared in other newspapers in many countries. On the 17th of August, another U boat, U-977 also arrived at Mar del Plata, further fuelling speculation. The commanders of these U-boats and their crews were arrested and interrogated by naval personnel from Argentina, the USA and the UK, they all concluded that the arrivals were innocuous and the crews were released. Two years later in 1947, Szabo published a book "Hitler is Alive" where he claimed these two U-boats had taken fleeing senior Nazis to Antarctica as part of a submarine convoy, the commander of U-977 in particular, Heinz Schaeffer denied this but the rumour still spread. In another version of the story, it is Hitler's ashes that were taken to Antarctica and placed in a special ice-cave along with Nazi treasure. Szabo claimed a Nazi Antarctic base called "New Berchetesgaden" had been built in 1938-39, this idea has been taken up by several authors over the years often building on earlier embellishments with tales becoming ever more fantastical as time went on. The submarine convoy and the "New Berchetesgaden" base both first appear when described by Szabo, there is no reference to either before his publications, subsequent publications refer to what he initially described and there has never been any evidence of either. Secret British Wartime operations While the Germans were not active in Antarctica during the war, the British were. Great Britain had claimed the sector of Antarctica between 20°W and 80°W and to the South Pole in 1908, Argentina claimed pretty much the same section from the mid 1920's and so did Chile in 1940, Argentina and Chile were both friendly with Germany. From February 1944 Great Britain occupied the region of their claim to rebut the competing claims from Argentina and Chile under the guise of obtaining information about German shipping raiders and U-boats in the region. A number of permanently manned bases were established to this end each with a handful of personnel under Operation Tabarin. Much scientific data was collected during this time and after the war, work continued as the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey which later became the British Antarctic Survey. Operations Highjump and Windmill Operation Highjump 1946-47 and Operation Windmill 1947-48 (the Antarctic summer seasons) were United States Navy operations with Highjump being the largest ever group to go to Antarctica consisting of 4,700 men, 13 ships and 33 aircraft. The main purpose was to prepare for and practice techniques for cold weather warfare in polar conditions while being diplomatically far away from the Arctic and Russia. It was primarily a military exercise with a number of other important objectives such as establishing a research station, investigating further potential base sites, extending the sovereignty of the Unites States to an extensive region of the continent, and surveying the electromagnetic, geological, hydrographical and other scientifically important aspects of the physical environment. Operation Windmill was a follow-up much smaller exercise the following year, an important part of which was to obtain ground references for the 70,000 aerial photographs taken during Highjump the previous year. Helicopters were used extensively, hence the name Windmill being given to the operation. Nuclear Explosions In August and September 1958, three nuclear explosions were detonated by the United States as part of Operation Argus over the South Atlantic between 38.5° and 49.5° south between 2,280 and 3,500km north of Antarctica to the southwest of South Africa. These were high altitude bursts and as might be expected at the time at the height of the Cold War were shrouded in secrecy, though they were reported soon afterwards in 1961. Contortions of the Truth and Invented Narratives As we have seen above, the evidence-free stories about a Nazi Base in Antarctica began within a week of a submarine turning up somewhere unexpected shortly after the Nazi surrender in 1945. The items I outline above are factual, though they have been used repeatedly as a scaffold to support all manner of fantasies that may or may not fit together. There are a number of narratives from several authors which follow similar patterns with some variations. The basic story is that a German base in Antarctica was established just before the war by the Schwabenland, this was expanded during the war being regularly supplied by submarine deliveries, it was used to develop sophisticated secret weapons. This base was spied on by the British who attempted unsuccessfully to destroy it in an SAS raid in 1945. Operation Highjump was sent to attack the base, though they were repulsed by secret weapons (flying saucers are often mentioned), then eventually the base was destroyed by nuclear bombs in 1958. By the time of its eventual destruction the base is often described as being populated by hundreds or even thousands of people and defended by a range of sophisticated weaponry including the flying saucers. Of course all of the stories claim that there has been suppression of facts and evidence by the British, Americans and anyone else you care to name, the lack of evidence is therefore presented implicitly as evidence. While a lack of evidence makes something much less likely, the absence of evidence is not the same as the evidence of absence. What follows is a short account of why the claims of a secret Nazi base are not only baseless (did you see what I did there?) but ridiculous. For a more in depth explanation and discussion, see: Summerhayes and Beeching, (2007) Polar Record 43 (224): 1-21. Hitler's Antarctic Base: The Myth and the Reality download here The Secret Nazi Antarctic Base Different authors claim different building times and locations of the supposed Nazi base, sometimes it is described as being in a warm ice-free oasis with lakes, sometimes pictures of other areas are misrepresented or just plain faked. While there are ice-free or relatively ice-free areas in Antarctica, they are not warm, the lack of ice is due to the prevailing winds and low snow deposition, not melting. The supposed warm ice-free caves under the ice/ground and source of geothermal energy to supply the base do not exist in Dronning-Maud Land, while there is geothermal and even volcanic activity in other parts of Antarctica, this area is particularly geothermally quiet. Time and logistics. The base described as first built in 1939 is usually described as being about 250km inland across a previously unexplored and unmapped, crevassed and sloping ice shelf. The ship Schwabenland was in the area for about a month. Previous Antarctic bases that had been established by Scott, Shackleton, Amundsen and others took at least two weeks to construct the base buildings. The Germans were inexperienced in such things and transport across 250km of uncharted ice field would have been difficult and time consuming even for the experienced. The Dornier aircraft had a payload equivalent of about 10 people and being flying boats were unable to land and take off safely on a glacier or ice cap so could not have been used for transport. There was simply not enough time or the resources to build a base so far inland in such a short space of time even to house just a dozen or so men as had happened previously let alone the hundreds imagined by authors who described the base. There have now been well over 1,000 scientists who have visited the area of Newschwabenland, several scientific bases have been established there since the 1950's, the whole area has been mapped by satellite and considerable air traffic has criss-crossed the area, none of this has led to the reporting of even the slightest evidence of a wartime Nazi base. As it was supposedly built in an ice-free oasis, it would not have been buried by snow. British Operation Tabarin There is a claim that the British set up a base called Maudheim-1 (there are no records) in Dronning Maud Land during the war to observe the apparent Nazi base, this was supposedly attacked by the Nazis in July 1945 followed by SAS led (failed) retaliatory attacks from October to December that year. While Operation Tabarin was a military led wartime mission and secret at the time, all records are in the public domain and no base was ever built in Dronning Maud Land, which as it is in the Norwegian claimed sector is as expected. The main purpose of Operation Tabarin was to establish a British scientific presence in the British claimed sector where all of the wartime bases were built. These bases were all tiny with a compliment of between 4 and 9 men. There was no SAS presence in Antarctica during the war. There were three de-mobbed ex-SAS men in the Falkland Islands in 1945-46 after the war who became involved in the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey, the civilian development of Operation Tabarin seeing the possibility for a civilian adventure in Antarctica. The SAS had been disbanded in October 1945 and would not be reformed until 1948. A number of bases were established in and around the Antarctic Peninsula area from February 1944, each was very small and they were frequently visited by shipping during the summer months with personnel being changed over or moved to other locations. They would also often be closed down and another opened as more or less advantageous places to build a base were discovered by trial and error. This perfectly normal and explicable behaviour has been suggested as being somehow significant or mysterious, it isn't. U-530 and U-977 Did these U-boats visit Antarctica before turning up in Argentina two months after the end of the war in Europe? Interrogation reports of the crews of these two submarines showed that U-530 was off New York when the news reached them of the German capitulation on the 8th of May 1945, while U-977 was off the coast of Norway. U-977 put 16 men ashore who chose to go near Bergen, and then the rest of the crew (now reduced from the normal number) made their way to German-friendly Argentina. Both boats had to travel quite slowly to conserve fuel, they travelled on the surface at night and below the surface during the day to avoid capture, this slowed them down further. The time taken for them to reach Argentina is exactly within the travelling time and speeds they could make during their separate journeys. Embellished claims were made that the U-530 that turned up in Argentina was in fact a much faster and larger boat than the "real" U-530, as usual without any evidence, even to the point where the supposed performance was significantly beyond any U boat in service. June and July when the submarines were claimed to be in Antarctica are the depths of winter there. Winter storms, 24 hour darkness and a formidable skirt of seasonal sea-ice 1-2m thick before the continent is even reached prevent any shipping operating in the winter even today, let alone small 1940's submarines without any ice strengthening. Satellite data shows that this sea-ice in the Dronning-Maud Land region extends from the coast by about 500km in May and June and 1,665km in July. Then there is the presence of huge ice-bergs, the difficulties of under-ice navigation and a 250km crevasse strewn inland journey largely in the dark with winter temperatures of down to -50°C once the submarines had landed. There is no evidence whatsoever of a convoy of submarines that these two boats were supposedly part of, going to Antarctica or elsewhere. Operation Highjump It is claimed by several authors with no supporting evidence that the purpose of Operation Highjump (1946-47) was to destroy the supposed Nazi base in Dronning-Maud Land. Highjump was primarily a military rather scientific expedition, one of a number at the time designed to prepare for potential cold weather warfare in the Arctic, while being diplomatically far enough away from the Arctic and Russia. It was widely written about in the press at the time and accompanied by 11 journalists rather than being secret as was the British Operation Tabarin. Books published shortly afterwards were written by people on the expedition and an official report released later in 1947. Though classified as confidential and not made available to the general public, it was never classified as secret, there was nothing in the official report that was substantially different to the report about Operation Highjump in a National Geographic magazine issue in 1947. Operation Highjump was centered on Little America IV, a new base that was built as part of the activities. This was on the Ross Ice Shelf on the opposite part of the continent to Dronning-Maud Land which was at the extreme limit of the planned exploration area. The ships didn't leave the USA until late in the season, December the 2nd 1946, and arrived late to the Ross Sea after meeting a 1000km wide belt of pack ice. They unloaded supplies and materials for the Little America IV base on the 15th of January 1947 and left again as winter began to arrive on the 23rd of February 1947 to avoid damage to the ships that didn't have ice strengthening. They did not leave as claimed in some more fantastical descriptions because they were chased off by "secret weapons" or "flying saucers" from the Nazi base on the other side of the continent. A short summer season is usual in the Ross Sea region due to variable sea-ice and the relatively unpredictable advent of the Austral winter, the whole operation got off to a late start and the weather-forced early end was not unanticipated. Activities of all kinds in Antarctica are primarily dependent on the weather and sea-ice conditions rather than strict dates on the calendar. It was intended to last longer than it did, but still only weeks rather than many months as sometimes claimed. Atom Bombs The invented narrative says that in 1958, 3 nuclear bombs were used to destroy the Nazi base in Dronning-Maud Land. The reality is that they were high altitude test explosions for a particular purpose of potentially interfering with radar, radio and electronics of satellites and missiles. They were exploded between 2,280 and 3,500km north of Antarctica. Antarctica is a much studied environment in part because it is clean with virtually no pollution. Ice cores taken show peaks of radioactive fallout from 1950's and 60's nuclear tests thousands of km away in chronological order as they are trapped within seasonal snowfall and accumulation and so recorded. Nuclear explosions directly over Dronning-Maud Land in 1958 would show dramatic peaks of radio isotopes if they happened, no such evidence has ever been found in any ice cores taken. 1958 was part of the International Geophysical Year when there was great international co-operation to study the polar regions including the establishment of many temporary and permanent scientific bases. At this time there were Belgian, British, Japanese and Norwegian scientists living on newly established bases in the area, nuclear explosions would have been noticed and reported. Conclusions A sledge hammer to crack a nut maybe? Any sensible minded person wouldn't give the Nazi Antarctic base fantasy the time of day. The time it has taken me to write this page or for Messers. Summerhayes and Beeching to research and write their excellent paper debunking the ideas formally is arguably beyond what the effort is worth. After all, anyone who might consider such things as true is probably not going to bother reading a detailed analysis about why they can't possibly be so. Admiral Byrd and his Trip to Antarctica and Testing the Firmament. Something is found in Antarctica, most likely the edge of the dome, then the area is shut down and kept by various countries around the world; the treaty of which has never been violated. The next event to occur is “operation fishbowl project Dominic” (1962), translated it reads fishbowl of the Lord, a very peculiar name wouldn’t you say? During this operation, both the United States and the Soviet Union launch nuke after nuke straight up into the sky. Why? Many others in the truth community believe they were testing the boundaries of the firmament. Here’s a quote from Dr. John Mack, Dept. of Defense during operation fishbowl, “Nothing has or ever will penetrate the glass dome”. If you found out you lived inside of an enclo

Earth is a level motionless plane with the Sun, Moon and stars revolving over and around us just as you experience every day. The North Pole is the magnetic mono-pole center-point with Polaris, the North Pole star situated directly above. Polaris is the only motionless star in the heavens with all the other constellations revolving perfect circles over the Earth every night. The so-called "planets," known to the ancients as "wandering stars," were named such because they were observed then as we can observe today to wander the heavens taking their own unique spirograph-like patterns making both forward and retrograde motions over and around the Earth during their cycles. Meanwhile the "fixed stars" were named such because they were observed then as we can observe today to stay fixed in their constellation patterns night after night, year after year, century after century, never changing their relative positions. If Earth was truly a tilting, wobbling, spinning space-ball as NASA and modern astronomy proclaim, rotating 1000mph on its axis, revolving 67,000mph around the Sun, spiraling 500,000mph around the galaxy, and shooting off several million more mph through the universe, the star patterns would never look the same two nights in a row, let alone be fixed in exactly the same constellations for thousands upon thousands of years! The reality is that the Earth and Polaris do not move, while everything else in the heavens revolves over Earth and around Polaris East to West like in a planetarium dome. Our Earth planetarium, however, is so vast that perspective won't allow any observer to see all the stars simultaneously from any one vantage point. We can see Polaris, Ursa Major/Minor and other Northern constellations from every point North of the equator simultaneously, but conversely cannot see the so-called South Pole Star - Sigma Octantis, the Southern Cross or other outer constellations simultaneously from every point South of the equator, because they all sweep over a great southern arc from their rise in the evening to their setting in the morning. Facing North, the stars turn counter-clockwise, from right to left, facing South they turn clock-wise, from left to right, facing East they rise in front and set behind, while facing West they rise behind and set in front. So their apparent motion, angle and inclination changes depending where you are on Earth and what direction you are facing, but their actual movement is always East to West.

NASA Admits Its All Fake National Aeronautics and Space Administration On July 29, 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act into law, establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a civilian agency responsible for coordinating America's activities in space. The agency absorbed the earlier National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which was a U.S. federal agency founded on March 3, 1915, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. NASA has since sponsored space expeditions, both human and mechanical, that have yielded vital information about the solar system and universe. During the 1960s, NASA started its space science and interplanetary probe program, with the Mariner program being its flagship program, launching probes to Venus, Mars, and Mercury in the 1960s. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was the lead NASA center for robotic interplanetary exploration, making significant discoveries about the inner planets. On July 29, 1958, the same day that Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act Offsite Link disabling the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Offsite Link (NACA), President Offsite Link Dwight D. Eisenhower Offsite Link signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act Offsite Link, establishing NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Offsite Link. The new agency— responsible for America's space program and for civilian, rather than military, aerospace and aviation research—became operational on October 1, 1958. International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. Mir was made of 7 sections or balloon launch 'modules' and solar power from the Sun generated the electricity which supported the fake balloon launch space station and its fake space crew who are really on the ground station. From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Offsite Link (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1Offsite Link. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year Offsite Link (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard Offsite Link. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite Offsite Link (Sputnik 1Offsite Link) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis Offsite Link"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency Offsite Link (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application. "On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act Offsite Link, establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory Offsite Link, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory Offsite Link, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory Offsite Link) and two small test facilities. A NASA seal Offsite Link was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency Offsite Link and the United States Naval Research Laboratory Offsite Link were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program Offsite Link (led by Wernher von Braun Offsite Link, who was now working for ABMA) which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard Offsite Link's earlier works. Earlier research efforts within the U.S. Air Force and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Offsite Link, a contractor facility operated by the California Institute of Technology Offsite Link" Dr. Wernher von Braun (1912–1977) was one of the most important rocket developers and champions of space exploration in the twentieth century. As a youth he became enamored with the possibilities of space exploration by reading the work of Hermann Oberth, whose 1923 book The Rocket into Interplanetary Space, prompted von Braun to master calculus and trigonometry so he could understand the physics of rocketry. From his teenage years, von Braun had held a keen interest in space flight, becoming involved in the German Society for Space Travel (VfR) in 1928. As a means of furthering his desire to build large and capable rockets, in late 1932 he went to work for the German army to develop liquid-fuel missiles. Based on his army-funded research on liquid-propellant rocketry, von Braun received a doctorate in physics on July 27, 1934, from the main university in Berlin. Von Braun was a member of an SS equestrian unit in 1933–34, joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and became a junior SS officer in 1940. The V–2 ballistic missile, the antecedent of U.S. and Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles and space launch vehicles, was the primary brainchild of von Braun’s rocket team. After 1937 they worked at a secret laboratory at Peenemünde on the Baltic coast. A liquid propellant missile 46 feet in length and weighing 29,000 pounds, the V-2 flew at speeds in excess of 3,500 miles per hour and delivered a 2,200-pound warhead to a target 200 miles away. First successfully launched in October 1942, it was employed against targets in Western Europe, including London, Paris, and Antwerp, beginning in September 1944. Following Royal Air Force bombing of Peenemünde on the night of 17-18 August 1943, the Nazi leadership made the decision to move production to a new underground facility. This V-2 assembly plant, called the Mittelwerk, was in central Germany near Nordhausen, utilized enslaved labor from the attached Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. Outfitting the underground facilities began in 1943 with production beginning late 1944. Brutal conditions in the underground facility led to a high mortality rate among the laborers. Though he remined at the test facility at Peenemünde almost to the end of the war, von Braun later testified (1969) to have traveled to the Nordhausen area around 15 times between the late 1943 and February 1945. These typically one-day visits involved trips to the Mittelwerk to communicate changes in V-2 design and final acceptance criteria resulting from continued testing at Peenemünde. Von Braun was well aware of the terrible conditions and was involved in decision-making about the use of slave labor. The camp was liberated by American forces in April 1945. By late 1944, it was obvious to von Braun that Germany would be defeated and occupied, and he began planning for the postwar era. Before the Allied capture of the V–2 rocket complex, von Braun was sent south, eventually to Bavaria. He surrendered to the Americans in the Austrian Alps, along with other key team leaders. For 15 years after World War II, Von Braun worked with the U.S. Army in the development of guided missiles. As part of a military operation called Project Paperclip, he and an initial group of about 125 were sent to America where they were installed at Fort Bliss, Texas. There they worked on rockets for the U.S. Army and assisted in V-2 launches at White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico. In 1950 von Braun’s team moved to the Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, where they designed the Army’s Redstone and Jupiter ballistic missiles, as well as the Jupiter C, Juno II, and Saturn I launch vehicles. A Jupiter C orbited the first U.S satellite, Explorer I, in 1958. Von Braun also became one of the most prominent advocates for space exploration in the United States during the 1950s, writing numerous books and several articles for magazines such as Collier’s. Von Braun also served as a spokesman for three Walt Disney television programs on space travel, Man in Space. In 1960, President Eisenhower transferred his rocket development group at Redstone Arsenal from the Army to the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Its primary objective was to develop giant Saturn rockets. Accordingly, von Braun became director of NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center and the chief architect of the Saturn V launch vehicle, the super booster that would propel Americans to the Moon. At Marshall, the group also worked on the Mercury-Redstone, the rocket that sent the first American astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight on May 5, 1961. Shortly after Shepard’s successful flight, President John F. Kennedy challenged America to send a man to the Moon by the end of the decade. With the July 20, 1969 moon landing, the Apollo 11 mission fulfilled both Kennedy’s mission. In 1970, NASA leadership asked von Braun to move to Washington, D.C., to head up the strategic planning effort for the agency. He left his home in Huntsville, Alabama, but in 1972 he decided to retire from NASA and work for Fairchild Industries of Germantown, Maryland. He died in Alexandria, Virginia, on June 16, 1977. Shortly after 11:00 am on September 8, 1944, there was an explosion on the southeastern outskirts of newly liberated Paris. It killed six people and injured 36 more at Charentonneau à Maison-Alfort. That evening, about 6:43 pm, another explosion took place in Chiswick, in far west London, killing three people and seriously wounding 17. Seconds later a third occurred in a field outside Epping in Essex, north of the city, harming no one. Thus began the world’s first ballistic missile campaign—one of only three ever (the others took place during the 1980s Iran-Iraq war and the 1991 Persian Gulf War). The missile involved was the German Army’s A-4, announced by Nazi Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels two months later as Vergeltungswaffe 2, “Vengeance Weapon 2“ or V-2. It followed the V-1, the world’s first operational cruise missile, which the Germans began launching against Britain, and later Belgium, in June 1944. He delayed the V-2’s unveiling due the disappointment in the German populace when the exaggerated hopes raised by V-1 propaganda, including that Britain would be knocked out of the war, proved false. Goebbels did not want another letdown. When his Ministry announced it, so did British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who had first learned about the rocket in 1943 from Allied intelligence. A V-2 missile on display in the Space Race gallery at the Museum in Washington, DC. The V-2 was a spectacular weapon: the most advanced device deployed in World War II until the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. A liquid-fuel rocket 14 meters (46 feet) tall and weighing almost 13 metric tons (over 28,000 lbs) at launch, it traveled nearly 300 kilometers (200 miles) in five minutes. Carrying a one-ton high-explosive warhead, it made a formidable crater when it impacted supersonically. Thanks to that velocity, the noise of it rushing through the air came after the sound of the explosion—if you were lucky enough to not be at the point of impact. Yet, like the V-1, it was no “wonder weapon.” Despite having a highly sophisticated and pioneering inertial guidance system using gyroscopes and an analog computer, the V-2 could barely hit a giant urban area part of the time, as the technology was not sufficiently advanced. It was an extraordinarily expensive way to drop a one-ton bomb on a city—at a time when the Western Allies were deploying up to 1,000 bombers in single air raids, with the effect of killing thousands or tens of thousands at a time. (Hence the “vengeance” label given by Goebbels.) Rather than coming too late to change the course of the war, the V-2 (and V-1) came too early to be effective. The Army and Waffen-SS launched over 3,000 rockets, primarily against London and Antwerp, but the ones that actually reached a populated target only killed about 5,000 people. Against that total must be put the 10-20,000 concentration-camp prisoners who died in the SS camps connected to V-2 manufacturing. That makes it a rare and peculiar weapon—more than twice as many people died as the result of making it than did being hit by it. And the V-2’s appalling production also left the Allies with a moral problem after the war, one they found necessary to cover up, at least in part. The United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and France were the real beneficiaries of Germany’s vast and wasteful expenditure on rocket technology, and they did so by taking personnel as well as documents, missiles, and equipment, to their countries. Notably, the U.S., which got the military and engineering leaders of the V-2 program, Gen. Walter Dornberger and Dr. Wernher von Braun, deliberately ignored or obscured their involvement with concentration-camp labor, as the Germans were too useful for the new missile arms race that ensued during the Cold War. The V-2 was a revolutionary technological device. The space launch vehicles and the intercontinental ballistic missiles of the world virtually all trace their origin, one way or another, to this rocket. It was the first human-built object to reach space, during German test launches in 1943/44, and again in U.S. and Soviet firings after the war. But it also helped create the specter of nearly instantaneous global nuclear war. Even today, long-range missiles sit in silos and submarines of the U.S., Russia, Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan and others. We can only hope that there are no more ballistic missile campaigns, or if there are, they are again conducted only with high-explosive warheads. Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible In 500 years, when humankind looks back at the dawn of space travel, Apollo's landing on the Moon in 1969 may be the only event remembered. At the same time, however, Lyndon B. Johnson, himself an avid promoter of the space program, felt that reconnaissance satellites alone justified every penny spent on space. Weather forecasting has undergone a revolution because of the availability of pictures from geostationary meteorological satellites--pictures we see every day on television. All of these are important aspects of the space age, but satellite communications has probably had more effect than any of the rest on the average person. Satellite communications is also the only truly commercial space technology- -generating billions of dollars annually in sales of products and services. The Billion Dollar Technology In fall of 1945 an RAF electronics officer and member of the British Interplanetary Society, Arthur C. Clarke, wrote a short article in Wireless World that described the use of manned satellites in 24-hour orbits high above the world's land masses to distribute television programs. His article apparently had little lasting effect in spite of Clarke's repeating the story in his 1951/52 The Exploration of Space . Perhaps the first person to carefully evaluate the various technical options in satellite communications and evaluate the financial prospects was John R. Pierce of AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories who, in a 1954 speech and 1955 article, elaborated the utility of a communications "mirror" in space, a medium-orbit "repeater" and a 24-hour-orbit "repeater." In comparing the communications capacity of a satellite, which he estimated at 1,000 simultaneous telephone calls, and the communications capacity of the first trans-atlantic telephone cable (TAT-1), which could carry 36 simultaneous telephone calls at a cost of 30-50 million dollars, Pierce wondered if a satellite would be worth a billion dollars. After the 1957 launch of Sputnik I, many considered the benefits, profits, and prestige associated with satellite communications. Because of Congressional fears of "duplication," NASA confined itself to experiments with "mirrors" or "passive" communications satellites (ECHO), while the Department of Defense was responsible for "repeater" or "active" satellites which amplify the received signal at the satellite--providing much higher quality communications. In 1960 AT&T filed with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for permission to launch an experimental communications satellite with a view to rapidly implementing an operational system. The U.S. government reacted with surprise-- there was no policy in place to help execute the many decisions related to the AT&T proposal. By the middle of 1961, NASA had awarded a competitive contract to RCA to build a medium-orbit (4,000 miles high) active communication satellite (RELAY); AT&T was building its own medium-orbit satellite (TELSTAR) which NASA would launch on a cost-reimbursable basis; and NASA had awarded a sole- source contract to Hughes Aircraft Company to build a 24-hour (20,000 mile high) satellite (SYNCOM). The military program, ADVENT, was cancelled a year later due to complexity of the spacecraft, delay in launcher availability, and cost over-runs. By 1964, two TELSTARs, two RELAYs, and two SYNCOMs had operated successfully in space. This timing was fortunate because the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), formed as a result of the Communications Satellite Act of 1962, was in the process of contracting for their first satellite. COMSAT's initial capitalization of 200 million dollars was considered sufficient to build a system of dozens of medium-orbit satellites. For a variety of reasons, including costs, COMSAT ultimately chose to reject the joint AT&T/RCA offer of a medium-orbit satellite incorporating the best of TELSTAR and RELAY. They chose the 24-hour-orbit (geosynchronous) satellite offered by Hughes Aircraft Company for their first two systems and a TRW geosynchronous satellite for their third system. On April 6, 1965 COMSAT's first satellite, EARLY BIRD, was launched from Cape Canaveral. Global satellite communications had begun. The Global Village: International Communications Some glimpses of the Global Village had already been provided during experiments with TELSTAR, RELAY, and SYNCOM. These had included televising parts of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. Although COMSAT and the initial launch vehicles and satellites were American, other countries had been involved from the beginning. AT&T had initially negotiated with its European telephone cable "partners" to build earth stations for TELSTAR experimentation. NASA had expanded these negotiations to include RELAY and SYNCOM experimentation. By the time EARLY BIRD was launched, communications earth stations already existed in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Brazil, and Japan. Further negotiations in 1963 and 1964 resulted in a new international organization, which would ultimately assume ownership of the satellites and responsibility for management of the global system. On August 20, 1964, agreements were signed which created the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). By the end of 1965, EARLY BIRD had provided 150 telephone "half- circuits" and 80 hours of television service. The INTELSAT II series was a slightly more capable and longer-lived version of EARLY BIRD. Much of the early use of the COMSAT/INTELSAT system was to provide circuits for the NASA Communications Network (NASCOM). The INTELSAT III series was the first to provide Indian Ocean coverage to complete the global network. This coverage was completed just days before one half billion people watched APOLLO 11 land on the moon on July 20, 1969. From a few hundred telephone circuits and a handful of members in 1965, INTELSAT has grown to a present-day system with more members than the United Nations and the capability of providing hudreds of thousands of telephone circuits. Cost to carriers per circuit has gone from almost $100,000 to a few thousand dollars. Cost to consumers has gone from over $10 per minute to less than $1 per minute. If the effects of inflation are included, this is a tremendous decrease! INTELSAT provides services to the entire globe, not just the industrialized nations. Hello Guam: Domestic Communications In 1965, ABC proposed a domestic satellite system to distribute television signals. The proposal sank into temporary oblivion, but in 1972 TELESAT CANADA launched the first domestic communications satellite, ANIK, to serve the vast Canadian continental area. RCA promptly leased circuits on the Canadian satellite until they could launch their own satellite. The first U.S. domestic communications satellite was Western Union's WESTAR I, launched on April 13, 1974. In December of the following year RCA launched their RCA SATCOM F- 1. In early 1976 AT&T and COMSAT launched the first of the COMSTAR series. These satellites were used for voice and data, but very quickly television became a major user. By the end of 1976 there were 120 transponders available over the U.S., each capable of providing 1500 telephone channels or one TV channel. Very quickly the "movie channels" and "super stations" were available to most Americans. The dramatic growth in cable TV would not have been possible without an inexpensive method of distributing video. The ensuing two decades have seen some changes: Western Union is no more; Hughes is now a satellite operator as well as a manufacturer; AT&T is still a satellite operator, but no longer in partnership with COMSAT; GTE, originally teaming with Hughes in the early 1960s to build and operate a global system is now a major domestic satellite operator. Television still dominates domestic satellite communications, but data has grown tremendously with the advent of very small aperture terminals (VSATs). Small antennas, whether TV-Receive Only (TVRO) or VSAT are a commonplace sight all over the country. New Technology The first major geosynchronous satellite project was the Defense Department's ADVENT communications satellite. It was three-axis stabilized rather than spinning. It had an antenna that directed its radio energy at the earth. It was rather sophisticated and heavy. At 500-1000 pounds it could only be launched by the ATLAS- CENTAUR launch vehicle. ADVENT never flew, primarily because the CENTAUR stage was not fully reliable until 1968, but also because of problems with the satellite. When the program was canceled in 1962 it was seen as the death knell for geosynchronous satellites, three-axis stabilization, the ATLAS-CENTAUR, and complex communications satellites generally. Geosynchronous satellites became a reality in 1963, and became the only choice in 1965. The other ADVENT characteristics also became commonplace in the years to follow. In the early 1960s, converted intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and intermediate range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) were used as launch vehicles. These all had a common problem: they were designed to deliver an object to the earth's surface, not to place an object in orbit. Upper stages had to be designed to provide a delta-Vee (velocity change) at apogee to circularize the orbit. The DELTA launch vehicles, which placed all of the early communications satellites in orbit, were THOR IRBMs that used the VANGUARD upper stage to provide this delta-Vee. It was recognized that the DELTA was relatively small and a project to develop CENTAUR, a high-energy upper stage for the ATLAS ICBM, was begun. ATLAS-CENTAUR became reliable in 1968 and the fourth generation of INTELSAT satellites used this launch vehicle. The fifth generation used ATLAS-CENTAUR and a new launch-vehicle, the European ARIANE. Since that time other entries, including the Russian PROTON launch vehicle and the Chinese LONG MARCH have entered the market. All are capable of launching satellites almost thirty times the weight of EARLY BIRD. In the mid-1970s several satellites were built using three-axis stabilization. They were more complex than the spinners, but they provided more despun surface to mount antennas and they made it possible to deploy very large solar arrays. The greater the mass and power, the greater the advantage of three-axis stabilization appears to be. Perhaps the surest indication of the success of this form of stabilization was the switch of Hughes, closely identified with spinning satellites, to this form of stabilization in the early 1990s. The latest products from the manufacturers of SYNCOM look quite similar to the discredited ADVENT design of the late 1950s. Much of the technology for communications satellites existed in 1960, but would be improved with time. The basic communications component of the satellite was thr traveling-wave-tube (TWT). These had been invented in England by Rudoph Kompfner, but they had been perfected at Bell Labs by Kompfner and J. R. Pierce. All three early satellites used TWTs built by a Bell Labs alumnus. These early tubes had power outputs as low as 1 watt. Higher- power (50-300 watts) TWTs are available today for standard satellite services and for direct-broadcast applications. An even more important improvement was the use of high-gain antennas. Focusing the energy from a 1-watt transmitter on the surface of the earth is equivalent to having a 100-watt transmitter radiating in all directions. Focusing this energy on the Eastern U.S. is like having a 1000-watt transmitter radiating in all directions. The principal effect of this increase in actual and effective power is that earth stations are no longer 100-foot dish reflectors with cryogenically-cooled maser amplifiers costing as much as $10 million (1960 dollars) to build. Antennas for normal satellite services are typically 15-foot dish reflectors costing $30,000 (1990 dollars). Direct-broadcast antennas will be only a foot in diameter and cost a few hundred dollars. Mobile Services In February of 1976 COMSAT launched a new kind of satellite, MARISAT, to provide mobile services to the United States Navy and other maritime customers. In the early 1980s the Europeans launched the MARECS series to provide the same services. In 1979 the UN International Maritime Organization sponsored the establishment of the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) in a manner similar to INTELSAT. INMARSAT initially leased the MARISAT and MARECS satellite transponders, but in October of 1990 it launched the first of its own satellites, INMARSAT II F-1. The third generation, INMARSAT III, has already been launched. An aeronautical satellite was proposed in the mid-1970s. A contract was awarded to General Electric to build the satellite, but it was canceled--INMARSAT now provides this service. Although INMARSAT was initially conceived as a method of providing telephone service and traffic-monitoring services on ships at sea, it has provided much more. The journalist with a briefcase phone has been ubiquitous for some time, but the Gulf War brought this technology to the public eye. The United States and Canada discussed a North American Mobile Satellite for some time. In the next year the first MSAT satellite, in which AMSC (U.S.) and TMI (Canada) cooperate, will be launched providing mobile telephone service via satellite to all of North America. Competition In 1965, when EARLY BIRD was launched, the satellite provided almost 10 times the capacity of the submarine telephone cables for almost 1/10th the price. This price-differential was maintained until the laying of TAT-8 in the late 1980s. TAT-8 was the first fiber-optic cable laid across the Atlantic. Satellites are still competitive with cable for point-to-point communications, but the future advantage may lie with fiber-optic cable. Satellites still maintain two advantages over cable: they are more reliable and they can be used point-to-multi-point (broadcasting). Cellular telphone systems have risen as challenges to all other types of telephony. It is possible to place a cellular system in a developing country at a very reasonable price. Long-distance calls require some other technology, but this can be either satellites or fiber-optic cable. The LEO Systems Cellular telephony has brought us a new technological "system"-- the personal communications system (PCS). In the fully developed PCS, the individual would carry his telephone with him. This telephone could be used for voice or data and would be usable anywhere. Several companies have committed themselves to providing a version of this system using satellites in low earth orbits (LEO). These orbits are significantly lower than the TELSTAR/RELAY orbits of the early 1960s. The early "low-orbit" satellites were in elliptical orbits that took them through the lower van Allen radiation belt. The new systems will be in orbits at about 500 miles, below the belt. The most ambitious of these LEO systems is Iridium, sponsored by Motorola. Iridium plans to launch 66 satellite into polar orbit at altitudes of about 400 miles. Each of six orbital planes, separated by 30 degrees around the equator, will contain eleven satellites. Iridium originally planned to have 77 satellites-- hence its name. Element 66 has the less pleasant name Dysprosium. Iridium expects to be providing communications services to hand- held telephones in 1998. The total cost of the Iridium system is well in excess of three billion dollars. In addition to the "Big LEOS" such as Iridium and Globalstar, there are several "little leos." These companies plan to offer more limited services, typically data and radiodetermination. Typical of these is ORBCOM which has already launched an experimental satellite and expects to offer limited service in the very near future. Prospect and Retrospect Arthur C. Clarke's 1945 vision was of a system of three "manned" satellites located over the major land masses of the earth and providing direct-broadcase television. The inherent "broadcast" nature of satellite communications has made direct-broadcast a recurrent theme--yet one never brought to fruition. The problems are not technical--they are political, social, and artistic. What will people be willing to pay for? This is the question-- especially with the availability of 120-channel cable systems. Hughes is apparently about to enter this field and may encourage others to do the same. Only then will Clarke's prophetic vision be fulfilled. There are currently six companies providing fixed satellite service to the U.S.: GE Americom, Alascom, AT&T, COMSAT, GTE, and Hughes Communications. They operate 36 satellites with a net worth of over four billion dollars. The gound stations which communicate with these satellites are innumerable and may have a similar net worth. INTELSAT has had competition in the international market from Pan American Satellite since 1986. Orion Satellite is expected to begin international service in 1994. Since Canada began domestic satellite service in 1972, that country has been joined by the United States (1974), Indonesia (1976), Japan (1978), India (1982), Australia (1985), Brazil (1985), Mexico (1985), and many others. Each year from 10-20 communications satellites are launched valued at about $75 million each. The launch vehicles placing them in orbit have similar values. Both satellites and launch vehicles are multi-billion dollar businesses. The earth station business is equally large. Finally the communications services themselves are multi-billion dollar businesses. John R. Pierce was right--it would be worth a billion dollars. Esrange Space Center is a rocket range and research center located about 40 kilometers east of the town of Kiruna in northern Sweden. It is a base for scientific research with high-altitude balloons, investigation of the aurora borealis, sounding rocket launches, and satellite tracking, among other things. Esrange was built in 1964 by ESRO, the European Space Research Organisation, which later became European Space Agency by merging with ELDO, the European Launcher Development Organisation. Swedish Space Corporation (SSC) has owned and operated Esrange since 1972. The facility is presently used by the international scientific community, space agencies, and commercial customers for launching sounding rockets for microgravity and atmospheric research, as well as high altitude balloons for astronomy, atmospheric research, and drop tests. The world's most versatile space center Esrange, owned and operated by SSC, is located in the very north of Sweden, above the Arctic Circle (68°N, 21°E) and has access to a vast, unpopulated impact and recovery area. The facility has been operational since 1966 and is presently used by the international scientific community for launching sounding rockets for microgravity and atmospheric research as well as high altitude balloons for astronomy, atmospheric research and drop tests of space and aerial vehicles. Esrange also accommodates one of the world’s largest civilian satellite ground stations and acts as a hub in our satellite station network. Satellite Launch Your European launch provider for small satellites From 2023, SSC SmallSat Express will be the new European launch capability for small satellites, providing a state-of-the art service at Esrange Space Center in northern Sweden, with full launch capabilities for standardized polar orbits. We have the launch site, the rocket partner and experienced staff who’ll take care of all your needs. Make Esrange and SmallSat Express your launch provider for small satellites. Spaceport Esrange Europe's polar gateway to Space SmallSat Express is part of a bigger project with the aim to manifest Esrange as a center of excellence providing a multitude of services, including small satellite launch services, to the scientific community as well as commercial customers. The facility already has a well-equipped infrastructure and staff with experience of range and launch safety as well as handling large rocket motors and launching of guided rockets. Apart from the launch service for small satellites, coordinated measurements using satellites, sounding rockets, balloons, and ground instrumentation will be possible. Payload and orbit details The launch service is intended for up to 1000 kg satellites; with primary focus on micro- and mini-satellites. SSC intends to provide rideshare opportunities for CubeSats and smaller payloads. The service will enable orbits suitable for sun-synchronous, polar LEO satellites. Sounding Rockets Rapid access to Space and back SSC provides support for sounding rocket missions at the Esrange facility. This includes providing complete solutions ranging from only using the site for launches with customer personnel, to the provision of flight tickets on one of the sounding rockets being launched by SSC. SubOrbital Express Rapid access to space and back SSC SubOrbital Express provides researchers, scientists and commercial companies with quick and easy shared-ride access to near-space, microgravity conditions. We have the expertise you need in mechanics, electronic and power design, advanced software engineering, experiment system engineering, mission system and engineering. We are there to provide you with customized design and development of experimental payloads, a safe launch and real-time experiment monitoring through to quick land recovery, giving you rapid access to space and back. Development and design Together with our Eurolaunch partner DLR-MORABA we analyze the vehicle trajectory, loads, and stability. We also design structural parts of the vehicle including inter-stage adapters and nose cones. We build service modules with telemetry, tele command, and support devices for science experiments and technology demonstrations. We offer a high-speed data-link, specially designed for transferring data across long distance for high altitude balloons and a new system for measuring of winds before rocket launches. Excellent launching facilities We provide launch services for most types of sounding rockets and stratospheric balloons from Esrange Space Center. We at SSC can offer you advantages that are hard to beat. Stratospheric Balloons Helping your mission to reach new heights SSC has a complete range of stratospheric balloon services for all your research needs. We’ve launched more than 600 stratospheric balloons since 1974, with payloads of several tons to near-space altitudes above 40 kilometers and flight times from just a couple of hours up to two weeks. Use our facilities at Esrange or we can come to you. Whether it’s atmospheric research, astronomy or technical tests of re-entry capsules and unmanned vehicles, we’ll help your research to reach new heights. A complete range of services SSC’s range of stratospheric balloon services includes payload design and manufacturing, service systems, balloon systems, launch services, flight operations and recovery. We offer complete missions of atmospheric research, astronomy or any other scientific missions as well as technical tests of re-entry capsules and unmanned vehicles. Our offer include balloons capable of lifting payloads of several tons to altitudes over 40 kilometers and flight times of more than two weeks. The launches regularly take place from SSC’s launching facility, Esrange Space Center, which has many advantages thanks to its geographical location. Summer and winter launches During summer season, long-duration trans-atlantic flights westwards from Sweden to North America, or even circumpolar flights, are performed. During winter season, flights eastwards are performed and in spring and autumn it is possible to perform one to two-day local or regional flights in what is called “turn-around” conditions. SSC’s experienced engineers can also carry out launch services from other launch facilities if required. Mir was a modular balloon space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. It was the first modular balloon space station and had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. Mir's core module was balloon launched on February 20, 1986, and additional modules were sent aloft on separate balloon launch vehicles and attached to the core unit, creating a large habitat that served as a versatile balloon space laboratory for more than 14 years. It was the largest artificial balloon launch satellite in orbit at the time and was succeeded by the ten balloon International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. Mir was made of 7 sections or balloon launch 'modules' and solar power from the Sun generated the electricity which supported the fake balloon launch space station and its fake space crew who are really on the ground station. The project, known as the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, or SOFIA for short, was an engineering marvel. Researchers at NASA and the German Space Agency installed a 38,000-pound, 100-inch reflecting telescope inside a Boeing 747SP. also known as the Fake Hubble Space Telescope Hoax. About the Fake Balloon Launch Hubble Space Telescope From the dawn of humankind to a mere 400 years ago, all that we knew about our universe came through observations with the naked eye. Then Galileo turned his telescope toward the heavens in 1610. The world was in for an awakening. Saturn, we learned, had rings. Jupiter had moons. That nebulous patch across the center of the sky called the Milky Way was not a cloud but a collection of countless stars. Within but a few years, our notion of the natural world would be forever changed. A scientific and societal revolution quickly ensued. In the centuries that followed, telescopes grew in size and complexity and, of course, power. They were placed far from city lights and as far above the haze of the atmosphere as possible. Edwin Hubble, for whom the Hubble Telescope is named, used the largest telescope of his day in the 1920s at the Mt. Wilson Observatory near Pasadena, Calif., to discover galaxies beyond our own. Hubble, the observatory, is the first major optical telescope to be placed in space, the ultimate mountaintop. Above the distortion of the atmosphere, far far above rain clouds and light pollution, Hubble has an unobstructed view of the universe. Scientists have used Hubble to observe the most distant stars and galaxies as well as the planets in our solar system. Hubble's launch and deployment in April 1990 marked the most significant advance in astronomy since Galileo's telescope. Thanks to five servicing missions and more than 25 years of operation, our view of the universe and our place within it has never been the same. Hubble Space Telescope Facts NASA named the world's first space-based optical telescope after American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble (1889 -- 1953). Dr. Hubble confirmed an "expanding" universe, which provided the foundation for the big-bang theory. Mission Launch: April 24, 1990, from space shuttle Discovery (STS-31) Deployment: April 25, 1990 First Image: May 20, 1990: Star cluster NGC 3532 Servicing Mission 1 (STS-61): December 1993 Servicing Mission 2 (STS-82): February 1997 Servicing Mission 3A (STS-103): December 1999 Servicing Mission 3B (STS-109): February 2002 Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125): May 2009 Size Length: 43.5 feet (13.2 m) Weight: At Launch: about 24,000 pounds (10,886 kg) Post SM4: about 27,000 pounds (12,247 kg) Maximum Diameter: 14 feet (4.2 m) Spaceflight Statistics ​Low Earth Orbit: Altitude of 332 miles (289 nautical miles, or 535 km), inclined 28.5 degrees to the equator Time to Complete One Orbit: about 95 minutes Speed: about 17,000 mph (27,300 kph) Optical Capabilities Sensitivity to Light: Ultraviolet through Infrared (115–2500 nanometers) Hubble's Mirrors Primary Mirror Diameter: 94.5 inches (2.4 m) Primary Mirror Weight: 1,825 pounds (828 kg) Secondary Mirror Diameter: 12 inches (0.3 m) Secondary Mirror Weight: 27.4 pounds (12.3 kg) Pointing Accuracy In order to take images of distant, faint objects, Hubble must be extremely steady and accurate. The telescope is able to lock onto a target without deviating more than 7/1000th of an arcsecond, or about the width of a human hair seen at a distance of 1 mile. Data Statistics Hubble transmits about 150 gigabits of raw science data every week. Power Needs Energy Source: The Sun Mechanism: Two 25-foot solar panels Power Generation (in Sunlight): about 5,500 watts Power Usage (Average): about 2,100 watts Power Storage Batteries: 6 nickel-hydrogen (NiH) Storage Capacity: Equal to about 22 average car batteries Did you know... Hubble has made more than 1.5 million observations since its mission began in 1990. Astronomers using Hubble data have published more than 19,000 scientific papers, making it one of the most productive scientific instruments ever built. Those papers have been cited in other papers 1.1 million times. Hubble does not travel to stars, planets or galaxies. It takes pictures of them as it whirls around Earth at about 17,000 mph. Hubble has circled Earth and gone more than 4 billion miles along a circular low earth orbit currently about 340 miles in altitude. Hubble has no thrusters. To change angles, it uses Newton’s third law by spinning its wheels in the opposite direction. It turns at about the speed of a minute hand on a clock, taking 15 minutes to turn 90 degrees. Hubble has the pointing accuracy of .007 arcseconds, which is like being able to shine a laser beam on President Roosevelt’s head on a dime about 200 miles away. Outside the haze of our atmosphere, it can see astronomical objects with an angular size of 0.05 arcseconds, which is like seeing a pair of fireflies in Tokyo that are less than 10 feet apart from Washington, DC. Due to the combination of optics and sensitive detectors and with no atmosphere to interfere with the light reaching it, Hubble can spot a night light on the surface of the Moon from Earth. Hubble has peered back into the very distant past, to locations more than 13.4 billion light-years from Earth. Hubble generates about 10 terabytes of new data per year. The total archive is currently over 340 TB in size. Hubble weighed about 24,000 pounds at launch but if returned to Earth today would weigh about 27,000 pounds — on the order of two full-grown African elephants. Hubble's primary mirror is 2.4 meters (7 feet, 10.5 inches) across. It was so finely polished that if you scaled it to be the diameter of the Earth, you would not find a bump more than 6 inches tall. Hubble is 13.3 meters (43.5 feet) long — the length of a large school bus. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy SOFIA NASA's prematurely canceled airborne telescope that left a gap behind SOFIA could observe the universe in the widest range of infrared light. The Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) was a telescope mounted on a Boeing 747 SP aircraft that studied infrared light, essentially heat, emitted by objects in the universe. The observatory, fitted with an 8.9-foot-wide (2.7 meters) telescope with a nearly 20-ton mirror, used a door in the side of the aircraft to peer at the sky. A collaboration between NASA and the German Aerospace Center (known by its German acronym DLR), the SOFIA project was prematurely ended in 2022 after operating for 12 years. The cancellation came following a recommendation of the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to discontinue the mission due to its high cost and insufficient scientific return. As an infrared observatory, SOFIA needed to be able to view the sky unobstructed by Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs most of the infrared radiation coming from space. In the 1990s, when SOFIA was proposed, a smaller flying infrared observatory, the Kuiper Airborne Observatory, named after Dutch-born astronomer Gerard Kuiper, had been doing a similar job for about 20 years. An alternative to an aircraft-borne infrared light-detecting observatory would be a space telescope, but at that time, NASA engineers saw considerable technical constraints for such a space mission. Since infrared telescopes detect heat, they need to be extremely cold in order not to blind their sensors with the warmth they absorb from their surroundings. For example, the European Space Agency's Herschel Space Observatory, which specialized in the far infrared wavelengths that SOFIA, too, observed, ran out of its helium coolant after only four years in orbit in 2013. "At that time, there was no other alternative for an infrared observatory that could provide access to the far-infrared universe for a long time," Alfred Krabbe, a professor of astronomy at the University of Stuttgart in Germany, who oversaw the German participation in the SOFIA mission, told Space.com. "You need something that can return to Earth and get a refill like a car. So the decision to put everything on an aircraft made a lot of sense." NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, the current flagship infrared observatory, overcomes the unwanted heat problem with a giant sun shield that protects it from any residual radiation coming from either Earth or the sun. But Webb observes only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that SOFIA could see, the warmer near and mid-infrared light, which has just somewhat longer wavelengths than the optical light that our eyes can see. SOFIA, on the other hand, could detect the much colder far-infrared wavelengths that even Webb is blind to. At the peak of its mission, SOFIA was making about four 10-hour observing flights per week. When it wasn't flying, the telescope was in a hangar, allowing engineers to tinker with its instruments, optimize them, upgrade them and also install new ones. "There is a great advantage to putting instruments up and proving them," Margaret Meixner, the Director of SOFIA Science Mission Operations at the Universities Space Research Association (USRA), told Space.com. "With some instruments, we kept adding modules and created new science opportunities by doing that. Also, we had an option to fix things that were not performing perfectly well. You can't do that in a space mission." SOFIA studied the universe in a vast range of wavelengths. The infrared spectrum covers radiation with wavelengths from 0.75 micrometers at the near-infrared side, which borders with visible light, to 1,000 micrometers at the side that neighbors with microwaves. The James Webb Space Telescope can detect light with wavelengths from 0.6 micrometers, just at the edge of the visible spectrum, to 28.5 micrometers, where the medium-wave infrared range ends. SOFIA, on the other hand, was able to detect light in wavelengths from 5 to 612 micrometers, way into the far-infrared range, in which cooler material in the universe shines. While not able to see as far as the famed Webb, SOFIA could discern types of phenomena in the universe that no other observatory could resolve. "Many galaxies emit most of their radiation in this very wavelength regime," Krabbe said. "Most of the dust that's created by active galaxies radiates at temperatures of 30, 40 or 50 Kelvin [minus 243 degrees C, minus 233 degrees C and minus 223 degrees C] and that's exactly the type of radiation that no other observatory can observe." Most of this radiation comes from the interstellar medium, the dust, gas and cosmic rays that fill the space between stars inside galaxies. While the James Webb Space Telescope can detect some of the interstellar medium's radiation, its peak is way outside of the grand telescope's range, at about 100 micrometers, a wavelength that only SOFIA could see, Meixner said. On top of that, while the supersensitive Webb, fine-tuned to detect the most distant sources of infrared light in the universe, has to stay completely clear of any bright objects, including the planets of the inner solar system, as well as Earth's moon, the less delicate SOFIA could safely turn its gaze at some of these bodies and make unprecedented discoveries. In many instances, SOFIA also provided a greater resolution of observed light spectra, the chemical fingerprints of the studied matter, which reveal its chemical composition. "Our spectrometers were able to pull apart the rainbow, or the spectrum, to a much finer level than James Webb," Meixner said. "About a factor of 20 better. And that enables you to pull out different species of molecules and atoms that you can't see with James Webb." During its 12 years in service, SOFIA, always somewhat in the shadow of its more famous orbital counterparts, made several ground-breaking discoveries. Here are some of the finds that SOFIA mission experts are most proud of. 1. Observations of the center of our galaxy, the Milky Way The center of our galaxy, the Milky Way, is shrouded in dust, which means that telescopes detecting visible light have no chance of seeing through to the supermassive black hole that resides there. The heat-carrying infrared light, however, penetrates through dust, allowing astronomers to take a look at the strange processes in this fascinating part of the galaxy. Images published in 2020 revealed a 600-light-year wide area surrounding the Milky Way's central supermassive black hole, known as Sagittarius A*, in the greatest detail ever, capturing swirls of dust and gas falling toward its demise inside of it. "It was not possible before to study the interaction between the black hole and the environment around it," Krabbe said. "We made a lot of progress in this area. The Milky Way's galactic center is a laboratory that enables us to understand these interactions much, much better." 2. Imaging magnetic fields that control star formation in galaxies SOFIA was the first space telescope capable of measuring the direction of magnetic fields on large scales, Krabbe said. It did so by detecting polarization, the direction in which light waves oscillate. "This was a real breakthrough," said Krabbe. "It's very difficult to measure polarization, especially in other than infrared wavelengths." For the first time, astronomers were able to observe how magnetic fields affect the behavior of matter across entire galaxies, influencing the galaxies' rotation and controlling star formation inside thick dust clouds. According to Meixner, SOFIA's measurements helped to crack questions that puzzled astronomers for decades. By measuring magnetic fields not only in our galaxy, the Milky Way, but also across many nearby galaxies, for example, SOFIA revealed how magnetic fields frequently counteract gravity, sometimes slowing down and sometimes speeding up the star-formation process. "Astronomers knew that there must be something slowing down star formation, because we don't see as much star formation as we would expect based on gravity," Meixner said. "And SOFIA has actually provided data to make people think hard about what magnetic fields are doing to the star-formation process. They are not just slowing it down. When a dust cloud reaches super high density, the magnetic field actually reverts its direction and allows the gas to feed in and build the star. SOFIA was able to map magnetic fields across whole galaxies and see how they aligned with the galactic spiral arms." 3. Finding water on the moon Among SOFIA's most hailed accomplishments is the discovery of water on sun-exposed parts of the moon. This couldn't have been done by any ground-based telescope, as the signature of water would be completely blocked out by water vapor in Earth's atmosphere. The James Webb Space Telescope will never be allowed to look at the moon, as that would mean looking in the direction of the sun, the brightness of which would blind Webb's sensitive optics. Prior to SOFIA's exploration, scientists thought that water was present only inside the moon's permanently shaded polar craters. But the flying telescope's observations revealed that the life-giving liquid might be much more common on Earth's companion than previously thought. 4. Ruling out the presence of the potential biomarker phosphine on Venus The highly sensitive SOFIA also weighed in on the discussion about the presence of phosphine in the clouds of Venus. A 2020 study based on measurements from the ALMA telescope in Chile famously claimed that microorganisms might be inhabiting the turbulent sulfur-rich atmosphere of the scorching planet, because the telescope spotted apparent traces of phosphines. These sulfur-rich compounds are present on Jupiter and Saturn as a result of the planets' natural chemistries. However, there was no explanation for their presence on Venus. On Earth, phosphines can be found too, but they have biological origins here. The discovery of phosphines on Venus therefore made headlines all over the world, as it was seen as a possible indication of the existence of life. But SOFIA, with its superior sensitivity, helped quash the excitement two years later. The telescope didn't detect any sign of phosphine on Venus, according to a study released in November 2022. That meant that if there indeed was any phospine on Venus, it would have to be present in amounts much lower than the original estimate. NASA added that SOFIA's "high spectral resolution also enabled [the telescope] to be sensitive to phosphine at high altitudes in Venus' atmosphere, about 45 to 70 miles (about 75 to 110 kilometers) above the ground — the same region as the original finding — with spatial coverage across Venus’s entire disk." 5. Finding evidence of universe's early chemistry In 2019, SOFIA made headlines by detecting a long-sought molecule known as helium hydride, which was speculated to have been the first molecule that formed in the universe after the Big Bang. A combination of helium and hydrogen, helium hydride was eventually detected by SOFIA in a planetary nebula (a remnant of a sun-like star) some 3,000 light-years away from Earth. For hundreds of thousands of years after the Big Bang, the universe was too hot and too full of radiation for atoms to bond together. At that time, only a few types of atoms existed, including hydrogen, helium and lithium. SOFIA was able to prove that, 100,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe cooled enough for helium and hydrogen to combine, forming helium hydride. The scope of SOFIA's wavelength coverage allowed the telescope to track other important chemical elements in the interstellar medium, including a molecule known as carbon plus, which plays a role in the formation of stars. "SOFIA has done a lot of very interesting work where they've mapped out carbon plus in galaxies, how much is coming from star formation versus the general diffuse interstellar medium," Meixner said. "Along with that, it mapped photodissociation regions, where you have massive stars illuminating their cradle and creating stellar feedback, influencing the chemistry of the molecular cloud that they formed in." 6. Discovering Pluto's hazy atmosphere SOFIA's observations, combined with data from the New Horizons probe's 2015 flyby of Pluto, confirmed that this cold and dark dwarf planet is shrouded in a hazy atmosphere. SOFIA made the observations of Pluto during a campaign in which the aircraft virtually chased the dwarf planet's shadow across the Pacific Ocean during an event known as occultation. Occultation, or eclipse, takes place when a smaller celestial body, in this case Pluto, positions itself between the observer and a more distant source of light, in this case a bright star. SOFIA observed the middle layers of Pluto's atmosphere, detecting traces of methane, nitrogen gas and carbon dioxide as high as 20 miles (33 km) above Pluto's surface. New Horizons then confirmed the observations, capturing beautiful snaps of the blue-tinged atmosphere surrounding the dwarf planet. SOFIA was mostly stationed in California but also conducted regular observing campaigns from New Zealand and Germany. Cruising at altitudes between 40,000 and 44,000 feet (12,000 to 13,000 m), above more than 99% of the infrared-scattering water vapor in Earth's atmosphere, the telescope conducted up to four 10-hour observing flights a week. Fitted with a lot of intelligent technology to keep it still even as the plane bobbed and vibrated, SOFIA's 8.9-foot (2.7 m) telescope remained fixed on the observed target while instrument operators, scientists and data analysts sat in the cabin, which was converted into a control room. The flight crew and navigators occupied the plane's upper level and the front of the plane, which provided seats for takeoff, landing and enjoying the view. "In the Southern Hemisphere, you get to see the lights of the aurora," Naseem Rangwala, the NASA SOFIA project scientist, told Space.com in an earlier interview. "It's an amazing experience." The U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommended in its "decadal survey" in November 2021 the cancellation of the SOFIA project due to its high cost and relatively low scientific return. Even with its four 10-hour weekly flights, SOFIA couldn't compete in scientific productivity with space telescopes or ground-based instruments operating 24/7. At the same time, the SOFIA mission came with a surprisingly high price tag. "SOFIA was the second-most expensive [mission] in the portfolio. Only the Hubble Space Telescope was more expensive," Paul Hertz, senior advisor in NASA’s Science Mission Directorate and former SOFIA program scientist, told Space.com. "When SOFIA was recommended in 1990, it was recommended on the assumption that it could be done inexpensively. And that turned out not to be true. It cost about four times as much as people estimated that it would cost to build and two or three times as much to operate." At the same time, Hertz added, the mission "was among the least scientifically productive in the portfolio, based on the number of papers produced from SOFIA's observations." SOFIA's premature retirement, however, leaves a large gap in astronomers' abilities to observe the universe, which Krabbe said will not be filled for at least 10 years. "Advances in astronomy come mostly from the fact that you study across various wavelengths," Krabbe said. "And for the foreseeable future, we don't have a far-infrared mission, and we may not have one in the next 20 years. For a lot of scientists, this is not an easy gap to bridge. Particularly the young people will turn to other fields and less to far infrared, which I think is unfortunate." Meixner said the cancellation came just as SOFIA was reaching its optimal performance and was promising to increase the rate of discoveries and scientific publications. "In the past couple of years, we have really ramped up the science productivity of SOFIA. We doubled the annual publication rate over three years, and if it was left to continue, we could have doubled the [data] archive over the next three-year period," said Meixner. "You could say the mission ended on a high point. It hit all records: most flights, the best annual publication rate. I think people were disappointed because they thought that we've just hit the stride." SOFIA's cancellation probably closes the chapter of aircraft-mounted telescopes, Hertz said. In the future, however, smaller observatories may be installed on a next generation of autonomous high-altitude balloons or UAVs. "There may be niches for small airborne astronomical observatories in the future," Hertz said. "But when it comes to major infrared missions, the decadal survey recommended a space probe that would do a lot of the science that was unique to SOFIA, would cost about as much to build as SOFIA cost, but would be much more scientifically productive." SOFIA's final flight took place on Dec. 13, 2022. Taking off from NASA's Armstrong Flight Research Center in California, its usual home, the aircraft didn't head out above the ocean to escape light pollution and observe distant nebulas and galaxies, however. Its destination was the Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona, where it found its final resting place, or a permanent home, as a museum exhibit. Electrodynamic tethers (EDTs) are long conducting wires that can operate on electromagnetic principles as generators or motors, converting their kinetic energy to electrical energy or vice versa. EDTs can be either insulated or bare and make use of an ambient magnetic field to induce a voltage drop across their length. NASA researchers are developing a Momentum-Exchange/Electrodynamic Reboost tether that would use energy collected from solar panels to drive electrical current through the tether in the right direction to add energy to its orbit and reboost it for another use. The induced voltage is given by |vxB•L|, where v is the relative velocity to the ambient plasma, B is the geomagnetic field strength, and L is the length of the tether. Space Transportation with a Twist Today's scientists are already hard at work on new ideas for spaceflight in the future. New technology is being developed to help propel spacecraft into Earth orbit -- and beyond. NASA researchers are studying ways to create more powerful and more efficient rockets. Engineers are considering things such as energy beamed from the ground, ions, and plasma as possible concepts for next-generation engines. Next to all of these super-high-tech ideas, one spaceflight possibility sounds remarkably simple -- string. Needless to say, if it's going to help propel spacecraft and satellites into higher Earth orbits, and beyond, it has to be some high-tech string. More accurately, the technology is called space tethers. A tether is essentially just something used to tie one object to another. On Earth, tethers are generally used to keep something in place. In space, however, tethers could serve several useful purposes. One of the uses being examined would be to move satellites into higher orbit, or even to help send spacecraft out into the solar system. This would be done using a process known as momentum exchange. The system would involve placing a satellite in orbit that would be used to boost other objects further from Earth.

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